BIOL 107 > Exam 2: Learning Objectives > Flashcards

Exam 2: Learning Objectives Flashcards

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1
Q

describe the flow of energy through living systems

A
  • known as bioenergetics
  • sun to plants to consumers to decomposers to heat
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2
Q

define metabolism

A
  • all chemical reactions that take place in cells
  • transforms matter and energy
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3
Q

explain metabolic pathways and the two major types

A
  • metabolic pathways consist of many biochemical reactions
  • anabolic: build bonds, requires energy, photosynthesis
  • catabolic: breaks bonds, releases energy, glycolysis
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4
Q

compare and contrast the different forms of energy

A
  • potential: stored energy, energy of matter due to structure, includes chemical energy
  • kinetic: energy of objects in motion
  • chemical: bonds holding atoms together have potential energy, chemical reactions break bonds and release energy
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5
Q

explain how energy is transformed in living systems

A
  • potential energy in chemical bonds
  • bonds broken and energy is released
  • energy is required to build complex molecules
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6
Q

describe endergonic and exergonic reactions

A
  • endergonic: non-spontaneous, require energy, anabolic, build bonds, products have more free energy
  • exergonic: spontaneous, releases energy, catabolic, breaks bonds, reactants have more free energy
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7
Q

define the first two laws of thermodynamics in simple terms

A
  • 1st: energy not created or destroyed only transformed
  • 2nd: all energy transfers are never completely efficient; some energy is always lost (usually as heat) which increases entropy in the universe
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8
Q

describe activation energy

A
  • initial energy required for reaction to start
  • causes reactants to become more unstable and allows reaction to take place quickly
  • usually sourced from heat surrounding the cell
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9
Q

explain how energetically unfavorable reactions can occur in a cell

A
  • enzymes
  • lower activation energy so reactions can occur easier
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10
Q

describe enzymes and their function (what do they do/not do)

A
  • DO catalyze biochemical reactions
  • DO lower activation energy
  • DO bind to substrates
  • DON’T change whether reaction is endergonic or exergonic
  • DON’T change free energy of reactants or products
  • DON’T get used up/changed from process
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11
Q

compare the different types of enzyme regulation

A
  • competitive inhibition: molecule binds to active site, blocks substrate from binding
  • allosteric (non-competitive) inhibition: molecule binds to allosteric site, changes enzyme active site so substrate cannot bind
  • allosteric activation: molecule binds to allosteric site, changes enzyme active site so substrate can bind
  • feedback inhibition: end product of enzyme reaction inhibits the continuation of reactions
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12
Q

summarize energy transformations in the biosphere

A
  • light energy converted to usable energy through photosynthesis
  • cellular respiration converts glucose into energy for cells
  • energy leaves through heat
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13
Q

sketch the structure of ATP

A
  • one adenine
  • one ribose sugar
  • 3 phosphate groups
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14
Q

describe the role of ATP in the cell

A
  • energy supplying molecule of the cell
  • powers work by coupling exergonic and endergonic reactions
  • energy released from ATP when phosphate bonds are broken
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15
Q

understand the importance of cellular respiration

A

converts nutrients into ATP energy

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16
Q

write an equation summarizing cellular respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

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17
Q

explain why glycolysis is considered “universal”

A
  • all cells undergo glycolysis
  • aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration
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18
Q

describe the location of glycolysis

A

cytosol

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19
Q

summarize the energy investment and output phases of glycolysis (including significant inputs and outputs)

A
  • energy investment: glucose phosphorylated then converted to glyceraldehyde-3-P, requires 2 ATP
  • energy payoff: glyceraldehyde-3-P becomes pyruvate, NAD+ picks up 2 electrons, 4 ATP produced
  • yields 2 net ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate
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20
Q

explain the role of NAD+ in cellular respiration

A
  • electron transport molecule
  • NAD+ picks up electron and becomes NADH
  • NADH goes to electron transport chain and gives electron to power ATP formation
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21
Q

understand the importance of glycolysis

A
  • reduces glucose to pyruvate which goes in CAC
  • produces NADH for ETC
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22
Q

describe the location of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation

A
  • CAC: mitochondrial matrix
  • OP: mitochondrial inner membrane
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23
Q

describe how pyruvate is prepared for entry into the citric acid cycle

A
  • oxidation of pyruvate
  • converted to acetyl CoA: oxidized to acetate and attached to coenzyme A
  • CO2 released
  • electron passed to NAD+ producing NADH
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24
Q

describe the products of the citric acid cycle

A
  • 4 CO2
  • 6 NADH ***
  • 2 FADH2 ***
  • 2 ATP/GTP
  • H2O
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25
understand the purpose of the citric acid cycle
produces NADH and FADH2 for the ETC
26
describe the flow through the electron transport chain
- electrons from NADH go into C1 embedded protein - move through C2, C3, and C4 - move back into mitochondrial matrix - accepted by oxygen - water created
27
explain the role of ATP synthase in the production of ATP
- where H+ flows down from the electrochemical gradient - drives chemiosmosis - where energy from H+ bind ADP and P to create ATP
28
understand the relationship between glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation
- 1st: glycolysis: glucose becomes pyruvate (becomes acetyl CoA in linker reaction) - 2nd: citric acid cycle: uses acetyl CoA to generate NADH - 3rd: oxidative phosphorylation: NADH gives electrons to electron transport chain which powers electrochemical gradient for ATP synthesis
29
know the net yield of ATP from each part of cellular respiration
- glycolysis: 2 ATP - citric acid cycle: 2 ATP - oxidative phosphorylation: 36-38 ATP
30
explain why oxygen is a beneficial electron acceptor
highly electronegative
31
explain how a circular pathway, like the citric acid cycle, fundamentally differs from a linear biochemical pathway, like glycolysis
- citric acid cycle continues in a cycle; creates oxaloacetate which is used to start reaction again - glycolysis: starts with glucose and ends with pyruvate which isn't used to start a cycle
32
compare/contrast the fates of pyruvate under aerobic and anaerobic conditions
- aerobic: becomes acetyl CoA - anaerobic: becomes lactate or ethanol
33
describe the 2 major types of fermentation
- lactic acid: pyruvate converted to lactate, directly regenerates NAD+, pyruvate is final electron acceptor - alcohol: pyruvate converted to acetaldehyde converted to ethanol, acetaldehyde is final electron acceptor
34
understand the relationship between glycolysis and fermentation
- glycolysis takes place in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration - fermentation takes place in anaerobic respiration - glycolysis provides pyruvate for fermentation
35
explain the purpose of cell division in unicellular vs multicellular organisms
- unicellular: reproduction - multicellular: reproduction, growth and development, tissue repair, and tissue maintenance
36
compare the genomes of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
- both: double helix, same nucleotides, same genetic code - prokaryotes: nucleoid region, 1 circular chromosome, have plasmids - eukaryotes: nucleus, several linear chromosomes, have histones
37
understand the structure of a eukaryotic chromosome
- DNA and histone proteins make chromatin which condenses to form chromosomes - number of chromosomes varies by species
38
know the purpose of DNA replication and recognize a duplicated vs unduplicated chromosome
- purpose: to ensure daughter cells are genetically identical to original - duplicated: x-shape - unduplicated: one linear shape
39
sketch, label, and describe the eukaryotic spindle apparatus
- astral microtubules: connect centrioles to cell membrane, keep centrosome in place - polar microtubules: extend from centrioles to middle of cell, help the help move apart and elongate - kinetochore microtubules: connect centrioles to kinetochores of sister chromatids, pull sister chromatids apart during anaphase
40
compare somatic cells and gametes
- somatic: body cells, diploid - gametes: sex cells, haploid
41
interpret a simple karyotype
- homologous chromosomes: paired, carry same genes, one from each parent - heterologous chromosomes: not matching, X and Y chromosomes
42
explain the 3 stages of interphase
- G1: cell growth, biochemically active - S: DNA replication - G2: energy replenished, organelles reproduce, cytoskeleton breaks down, visible growth
43
describe the different stages of the mitotic phase and discuss the behavior of chromosomes and cellular components during each phase
- prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle fibers emerge, nuclear envelope breaks - prometaphase: kinetochores appear, spindles attach to kinetochores, centrosomes move to opposite poles - metaphase: chromosomes lined up at metaphase plate - anaphase: sister chromatids pulled apart toward centrosomes - telophase: chromosomes at opposite poles decondense, nuclear envelope forms, mitotic spindle breaks down to form cytoskeleton
44
explain the process of cytokinesis
- animals: cleavage furrow separates daughter cells - plants: cell plate separates daughter cells
45
define the quiescent G0 phase
- reversible state - cell resides before entering cell cycle
46
know where the checkpoints in the cell cycle occur and what happens at each checkpoint
- G1: end of G1 phase; checks cell size, enough nutrients, growth factors, and no DNA damage - G2: before mitosis; checks that DNA replication is complete and there is no damage in replicated DNA - M: during metaphase; checks that chromosomes are lined up and connected to spindle fibers
47
describe how cells become cancerous
- problems with genes regulating checkpoints - causes uncontrolled cell division - gene mutations build up across many divisions
48
explain how protooncogenes are normal but become oncogenes
- protooncogenes code for positive cell regulators (tell cell when to go through division) - mutations make them oncogenes
49
describe the affect of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes on the cell cycle
- oncogenes: accelerated cell division because positive cell regulator overrides other processes, accelerates cell growth - tumor suppressor genes: when mutated they stop negative cell regulators (tell cell to stop division) from working, cell divides even with problems
50
explain the process of cell division in prokaryotic cells
- binary fission - bacterial chromosome replicates - 2 daughter chromosomes move apart - septum forms and divides the cell
51
compare and contrast sexual and asexual reproduction
- sexual: creates genetically unique offspring, requires mate and energy, slower population growth - asexual: creates genetically identical offspring, doesn't require a mate or energy, faster population growth
52
compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis
- mitosis: 1 division, genetically identical, 2 diploid cell produced, somatic cells - meiosis: 2 divisions, genetically unique, 4 haploid cells produced, sex cells
53
describe the stages of meiosis and the important events that occur at each stage (movement of chromosomes)
- interphase: similar to mitosis - prophase 1: chromosomes undergo crossing over (exchange genetic information) and associate with homologous pair - metaphase 1: tetrads line up in metaphase plate randomly (independent assortment) - anaphase 1: homologous chromosomes separate, sister chromatids remain attached - telophase 1: sometimes chromosomes recondense, ends with 2 haploid cells - meiosis 2: similar to mitosis, sister chromatids separate, ends with 4 haploid cells
54
explain nondisjunction and how it leads to chromosome abnormalities
- when homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis - results in duplications or losses of entire chromosomes
55
explain errors in chromosome structure through duplication, deletion, and structural rearrangements
- duplications: extra copy of small piece of chromosome - deletions: deletion of a segment of a chromosome - inversions: detachment, 180-degree rotation, and reattachment of segment of chromosome - translocations: part of chromosome detaches and reattached to another non-homologous chromosome
56
understand the relationship between genes, alleles, and loci
- alleles are different versions of the same gene; what alleles you have make up genes - genes are basic unit of heredity passed from one generation to the next - loci are locations where a gene is found on a chromosome
57
explain different types of crosses
- monohybrid: for one trait - dihybrid: for two traits - test: to find genotype of dominant expressing parent by crossing with homozygous recessive individual - reciprocal: traits of male and female switch between crosses
58
explain a model system
- system of convenient characteristics to study a phenomena - mendel used pea plants
59
describe mendel's experiments
- manually cross pollinated true-breeding parental generations (hybridization) - let F1 generation (hybrids) self-pollinate and observed characteristics - looked at multiple discrete characteristics
60
explain how mendel's results demonstrated continuous variation and contrast with the idea of discontinuous variation
- i think this question is worded wrong; should be other way around - continuous: mendel didn't observe, range of difference, offspring are blend of parents - discontinuous: medel did observe, one of two distinct characteristics shown in offspring
61
distinguish between different types of crosses and the annotations used to represent each generation
- P: parental generation, true-breeding parents, homozygous for different traits, manually pollinated - F1: first filial generation, hybrids, all heterozygous and express dominant trait, self-pollinate - F2: second filial generation, has all genotypes, 3:1 phenotypic ratio
62
define trait and distinguish between dominant and recessive
- trait: specific characteristic of an individual - dominant: fully expressed in phenotype, only one copy needed, PP or Pp - recessive: non-functional copy, expressed in absence of dominant allele, pp
63
distinguish between genotype and phenotype
- genotype: genetic makeup; PP, Pp, pp - phenotype: physical appearance: purple flower, white flower
64
explain the relationship between genotype and phenotype and how they relate to dominant and recessive
- genotype: genetic makeup, can have dominant or recessive alleles, results in phenotype - phenotype: physical appearance, caused by genotype and dominant or recessive alleles
65
use a punnett square the calculate the expected proportion of genotypes and phenotypes in a monohybrid cross
- possible alleles in gametes placed on top and side of square - combine alleles in each box to get potential offspring genotypes
66
explain mendel's law of segregation and how is relates to events of meiosis
- alleles/chromosomes segregate during meiosis - gametes have equal chance of receiving either allele/chromosomes - only 1 allele/chromosome is carried in a particular gene: individuals have 2 alleles (1 from each parent) - occurs during meiosis 1 when homologous chromosomes are segregated into daughter cells
67
explain mendel's law of independent assortment and how it relates to events of meiosis
- each pair of alleles/chromosomes segregates autonomously and without influence on other alleles/chromosomes - random combinations of alleles in gametes - occurs during meiosis 1 when homologous pairs line up in metaphase plate in random orientations
68
explain the purpose of a test cross
- determine genotype of dominant expressing parent - cross with homozygous recessive to see if offspring exhibit recessive trait or not
69
use probability rules to predict the outcomes of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
- calculate probabilities of the separate allele combinations - multiply probabilities together
70
identify this non-mendelian inheritance pattern: incomplete dominance
- phenotype of F1 hybrids in between phenotypes of parents - 3 phenotypes usually seen - blended mix
71
identify this non-mendelian inheritance pattern: codominance
- 2 dominant alleles affect the phenotype is separate but distinguishable ways - both phenotypes are seen separately - human blood type - unblended mix
72
identify this non-mendelian inheritance pattern: multiple alleles
- genes with more than 2 alleles - very common - each organism can only have 2 alleles - large variance in phenotypes - human blood type has 3 alleles
73
identify this non-mendelian inheritance pattern: sex linkage
- genes on sex chromosomes - fruit fly eye color
74
describe the phenotypic outcomes of epistasis
- 9:3:4 ratio - 9 have black pigment and can deposit - 3 have brown pigment and can deposit - 4 can't deposit pigment (doesn't matter what the pigment color is)
BIOL 107
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