1
Q
what are the components of the cardiovascular system?
A
blood, heart, vascular system (arteries, veins, capillaries), lymphatics
2
Q
what are the functions of the cardiovascular system?
A
- transportation
- regulation (blood monitors ion concentration, pH, etc)
- protection (transport of WBC through vascular system and other things through lymphatic system)
3
Q
is the circulatory system an open or closed system?
A
closed-circuit system
4
Q
what are the two divisions of the circulatory system?
A
systemic and pulmonary
5
Q
what are happens in the systemic circulatory system?
A
- blood exchange between heart and tissues
- oxygenated blood goes from L ventricle to tissues
- gas exchange occurs
- deoxygenated blood travels from tissues back to R atrium of the heart
6
Q
what are happens in the pulmonary circulatory system?
A
- exchange between heart and lungs
- oxygenated blood travels from lungs via pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart
- deoxygenated blood leaves the R ventricle via the pulmonary artery back to the lungs
-reoxygenating blood
7
Q
what is the normal pH of blood?
A
7.35 to 7.45
8
Q
what keeps blood neutral?
A
pH buffers
- bicarbonate
- carbonic acid
9
Q
how many divisions does the circulatory system split into?
A
2
10
Q
what are the divisions of the circulatory?
A
- pulmonary - blood flow between heart and lungs
- systemic - blood flow between heart and tissues
11
Q
how many types of blood vessels are there in the body? what are they?
A
3; arteries, veins, capillaries
12
Q
what are the characteristics of arteries?
A
- thick walled
- carry blood under high pressure (due to gravity and aorta pumping)
- no valves because the pressure is too high for backflow
- bright red
- high in elastin
- carries oxygenated blood away from the heart
13
Q
what are the layers of the heart? Describe each
A
- fibrous pericardium: outermost layer, tough fibrous CT, for protection and connecting the heart to the diagram
- serous pericardium: 2 layers (parietal and serous), contains a pocket of fluid between the two layers, acts as a lubricant, and reduces friction/heat
- myocardium: muscle layer of the heart, this layer contributes to contractions
- endocardium: layer closest to lumen of heart, protects valves and heart chambers
14
Q
which lung has fewer lobes? why does it have fewer lobes?
A
the left lung; there is less space on the left side due to the heart being on that side of the mediastinum
15
Q
What is the Mediastinum? What is its purpose?
A
- The intrapleural space between the pleural cavities where the heart lies
- This space also holds the trachea, esophagus, and other vascular structures
16
Q
- What term refers to the heart contraction? Relaxation?
A
Systole is Contraction & Diastole is Relaxation
17
Q
The valves of the heart are ……. (active/passive)
A
passive
18
Q
The valves of the heart are ……. (active/passive)
A
Q = HR X SV
(HR = Heart Rate) (SV = Stroke Volume)
19
Q
What type of tissue is blood?
A
CT
20
Q
Describe the Frank-Starling Relationship.
A
States that stroke volume and strength of contraction have a positive correlation. AKA: the stronger the contraction, the more blood is pushed out.
21
Q
What percent of body weight is blood?
A
9%
22
Q
Describe how the heart beats. Include how blood flows, electrical currents, internal structures, etc.
A
- Deoxygenated blood flows into the Right Atrium through the Superior or Inferior Vena Cava.
- The Sinoatrial Node receives an electrical impulse. This causes the R Atrium to contract and push blood through the Tricuspid Valve into the Right Ventricle.
- The Atrioventricular Node receives the electrical impulse from the SA Node, splits it, and sends part of it to the Purjinke Fibers & Bundle of HIS. These cause the R Ventricle to contract and push blood up through the Pulmonary Valve.
- The blood exits the heart via the Pulmonary Artery to go to the lungs to get oxygenated.
- Oxygenated blood comes back to the heart via the Pulmonary Veins, and enters the Left Atrium.
- Another electrical impulse arrives at the SA Node. This causes the L Atrium to contract and push blood through the Bicuspid Valve into the Left Ventricle.
- The Atrioventricular Node receives the electrical impulse from the SA Node, splits it, and sends part of it to the Purjinke Fibers & Bundle of HIS. This causes the L Ventricle to contract and push blood up through the Aortic Valve.
- Blood exits the heart through the Aorta and goes to the rest of the body.
23
Q
What is the purpose of goblet cells in the respiratory system?
A
Their purpose is to produce mucous (mucin) that traps dust and moistens and warms the air
24
Q
Describe the pleura membrane and cavity.
A
- Pleura Cavity: Space between the ribs and lungs
- Visceral Pleura: Covers the lungs
- Parietal Pleura: Lines the ribcage & Covers the upper surface of the diaphragm
25
Describe the structures within a lobule of a lung.
- Primary Bronchi branch into Secondary Bronchi which branch into Tertiary Bronchi which branch into Bronchioles that end with Terminal Bronchioles
- Each terminal bronchiole has multiple alveolar ducts which have alveolar sacs attached
- Each terminal bronchiole and alveolar sac is supplied with a single arteriole and venule wrapped in elastic CT
26
Describe what each part of the respiratory system is composed of. What type of tissue, cells, etc. for each? (Start with Pharynx, end with Bronchi/Lungs)
1. Pharynx: Skeletal Muscle
2. Larynx: Epiglottis -> Elastic Cartilage
3. Trachea: Mucosa- Pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue; Submucosa- Loose connective tissue; Hyaline Cartilage rings
4. Bronchi/Lungs: Pseudostratified ciliated columnar neart top, transitions to nonciliated simple cuboidal as it passes deeper into lungs
27
Where in the body does blood come from? List specific parts of the body.
Comes from the following locations: Skull, Ribs, Sternum, Vertebral Column, Pelvis, Femur
28
What is hemostasis? What are the three parts of hemostasis
- Hemostasis is the balance of blood
- 3 Parts:
- Maintenance of proper blood pressure
- Ability of blood to clot
- Maintenance of proper cellular components
29
Describe how Platelets are created. What are their purposes?
- They form via Thrombopoiesis
- Unipotent stem cells differentiate into megakaryocytes and pieces of megakaryocyte are released into the peripheral circulation (transport of blood and tissues) as platelets
- Function:
- Help form blood
- Help clot blood and slow down bleeding
- Help wounds heal
30
Describe the lifecycle of a Red Blood Cell. (Be Specific)
- Kidneys detect reduced O2 carrying capacity of blood and they respond by secreting erythropoietin into the bloodstream.
- Erythropoietin stimulates erythropoiesis in the red bone marrow. This process creates red blood cells and releases them into the bloodstream until O2 carrying capacity increases.
- Once the RBC reaches the end of its life in the blood they go through Hemolysis.
31
List all of the cells that can be found in blood/lymph. Describe the function, origin, immune function, and organs associated with each. (HINT. 11)
1. RBC: Oxygenate tissues & carry CO2 away from tissues; Created in RBM; Innate immune function
2. Platelet: Contain clotting factors; Originates in the bone marrow; Both immune functions
3. Monocyte: Matures to macrophages that regulates inflammation; Originates in bone marrow; Innate immune function
4. Neutrophil: Phagocytic function; Highest % during immune response; Innate immune cells; Originate in bone marrow
5. Eosinophil: Regulation of allergic & tissue response, Phagocytic nature; Originate in the bone marrow; Innate immune function
6. Basophil: Allergy response; Contain anti-clotting agents; Innate immune function; Originate in bone marrow
7. B Cell: Produce specific antibodies; Originate in the bone marrow; Adaptive immune function; Circulate ONLY the lymph system
8. Killer T Cell: Attach to antigens and destroy them; Adaptive immune function; Originate in the bone marrow; Circulate the peripheral blood circulation
9. Helper T Cell: Secrete cytokines to activate macrophages; Adaptive immune function; Circulate the peripheral blood circulation; Originate in bone marrow
10. Suppressor T Cell: Regulate the production of other 2 T Cells; Adaptive immune function; Develop in the Thymus.
11. NK Cell: Identify and kill tumors and other infected cells; Adaptive immune function; Originate in the bone marrow and some other sites such as lymph nodes, thymus, or spleen.
32
What are the functions of the lymph system?
1. Removal of excess tissue fluids (plasma)
2. Waste material transport
3. Filtration of Lymph
4. Transport of proteins
33
Describe the Tonsils and Thymus.
Tonsils: Prevent the spread of infection into the respiratory and digestive system; Lacks a capsule; Contain mature lymphocytes that fight infection; Non-essential organ
Thymus: Largest at birth and decreases with age; Helps kickstart the adaptive immune system; Helps produce T Cells
34
How does lymph form?
- It starts as plasma in the arterial bloodstream
- The plasma fluid builds up in the capillary beds of tissues because there is not enough room in the veins
- Lymphatic capillaries in the capillary beds of tissues pick it up
35
Describe the difference between Innate and Adaptive Immunity. BE DETAILED
- Innate Immunity:
-Born with the immunity (Genetic)
- Passed from mother during the gestation period
- 1st line of defense against any antigen
- Defends using Phagocytosis (eat it) or Cytotoxic (injecting it with something to kill it)
- Quick response to antigen entering the body
- No specific and does not have any knowledge about antigens
- Adaptive Immunity:
- Develops over your lifetime
- Cells learn how to fight certain antigens most effectively
- They learn by being exposed to them in the past (Learn antigens weaknesses)
- Slower to be activated and respond but they are more effective at killing them
36
Describe how a memory response works.
- Both T and B cells can become memory cells;
- Macrophages kill a virus for the first time and B and T cells take the antigen and produce memory cells.
- The memory cells wait in circulating blood or lymph nodes and wait for a second infection of the same antigen that initially caused them to form
37
Describe the different types of immunity.
Active Immunity: When an animal is exposed to a small amount of antigen to create a memory immune resposne (EX: Vaccines)
Passive Immunity: Can either get it from Colostrum, which is antibody rich first milk produced by a mother that goes to their calf, or through a Plasma Transplant which provides immunoglobulins
38
Eupnea definition
Normal, quiet, breathing
39
Apnea definition
Temporary cessation of breathing
40
Dyspnea definition
Difficult or labored breathing
41
Tachypnea definition
Rapid breathing
42
Coastal Breathing definition
Just rib activity involved
43
How are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide transported?
Oxygen is carried via hemoglobin that binds to the oxygen -> Creating oxyhemoglobin
CO2 can be transported 3 ways:
- Dissolved in plasma
- Combined with hemoglobin forming carbaminohemoglobin
- As apart of a bicarbonate ion
44
What is the difference between Pulmonary Respiration and Cellular Respiration?
Pulmonary Respiration:
-Exchange of O2/CO2 between pulmonary circulation and outside air
- Act of breathing and exchanging gases with blood
Cellular Respiration:
- Exchange of CO2/O2 between a cell and its environment
- Occurs in tissues
45
Describe the 4 different laws discussed.
1. Boyle's Law: As the size of closed container decreases, pressure inside is increased
2. Henry's Law: The quantity of gas that will dissolve in a liquid depends upon the amount of gas present and the solubility coefficient
3. Dalton's Law: Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure
4. Bohr Effect: As acidity (blood pH lowers) increases, O2 affinity for Hb decreases
46
How is breathing controlled?
| brain
Controlled by the respiratory center in the brain stem, specifically the pons and medulla oblongata that contain central chemoreceptors
47
What is the composition of the three types of air? (Which has more N2, O2, CO2)
- Air: Most O2, Least CO2, Equivalent N2
- Alveolar Air: Least O2, Most CO2, Equivalent N2;
- Expired Air: Equivalent CO2
48
Diaphragmatic Breathing def
Descent of diaphragm causes stomach to bulge during inspiration
49
what are characteristics of the veins?
- thin walled
- carrries deoxygenated blood back to the heart
- low pressure
- less elastin
- contains valves to prevent reflux
50
describe the capillaries
- connects arteries and veins
- very low pressure
- lacks valves
- goes into tissues
51
what is the function of the superior/cranial vena cava?
circulates blood from the head, neck, and forelimb regions
52
what is the function of the inferior/caudal vena cava?
circulates blood from trunk, pelvis, and hind limb regions
53
what is the function of the SA node?
where the heartbeat originates
54
where is the SA node located?
at the top of the right atrium
55
what is the function of the AV node?
recieves the electrical impulse from the SA node
56
where is the AV node located?
at the bottom of the right atrium
57
what is the statuus of the AV and SL valves during diastole?
- AV: open
- SL: shut
58
what is the statuus of the AV and SL valves during atrial systole?
- AV: open
- SL: shut
59
what is the statuus of the AV and SL valves during isovolumetric ventricular contraction?
- AV: shut
- SL: shut
60
what is the statuus of the AV and SL valves during ventricular ejection?
- AV: shut
- SL: open
61
what is the statuus of the AV and SL valves during isovolumetric ventricular relaxation?
- AV: shut
- SL: shut
62
systole = ?
diastole = ?
systole = contraction
diastole = relaxation
63
where is the tricuspid valve located?
between the right atrium and right ventricle
64
where is the pulmonary valve located?
between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery
65
where is the mitral valve located?
between the left atrium and the left ventricle
66
where is the aortic valve located?
between the left ventricle and the aorta
67
what is the flow of blood through the heart?
- deoxygenated blood from the body is delivered to the superior and inferior vena cavas
- blood flows to the right atrium
- though the tricuspid valve in the right ventricle
- through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery
- deoxygenated blood then flows from the heart to the lungs to become oxygenated
- oxygenated blood goes to the heart from the lungs
- enters through four pulmonary veins
- into the left atrium
- through the mitral valve to the left ventricle
- through the aortic valve to the aorta
- oxygenated blood flows to tissues
68
what are the parts of the upper respiratory system?
nostrils, pharynx, larynx
69
what are the parts of the lower respiratory system?
larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
70
describe internal respiration
- exchange of gas between the blood and tissues
- blood goes from oxygenated to deoxygenated
- O2 diffuses inward into the tissues
71
during internal respiration, what percent of O2 diffuses into the cell while the body is at rest? during exercise?
rest: 25%
exercise: increases %
72
describe external respiration
- exchange of gas between air and blood
- deoxygenated blood becomes saturated with O2
- gas diffues from ares of high partial pressure to low partial pressure
73
what is an example of boyle's law?
Gas diffuses from areas of high partial pressure to areas of low partial pressure. During breathing, O2 and CO2 move across the alveolar membrane based off partial pressure, allowing for gas exchange to happen.
74
what are the two muscles used for breathing?
diaphragm and intercostal muscles
75
define tidal volume
the maount of air moved during quiet, normal breathing
76
define MVR
minute ventilation rate; the amount of air moved in a minute
77
define reserve volume
the amount of air that you can breath in/out above the tidal volume
78
define residual volume
the amount of air that is permanently trapped in the lungs
79
what is hematopoiesis?
formation of blood
80
where does hematopoiesis occur?
in red bone marrow
81
describe how a blood clot forms
1. blood vessel is severed causing blood and blood components to leak out
2. smooth muscle in vessel wall contracts near injury to slow blood loss
3. platelets are activated by chemicals released by inhury site
4. platelets move towards the chemicals being released and line the damage and start coagulation cascade
5. thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin to form a blood clot
6. platelets become sticky and clot together
7. fibrin becomes woven into a net-like structure that surrounds and supports the newly formed clot
8. fibrinolysis dissolves clot after it has healed
82
what is the difference between lymph and plasma?
- once plasma leaves the lymphatics system and re-enters the circulatory system, it is considered lymph
- once lymph leaves the circulatory system and re-enters the lymphatics system, it becomes plasma
- lymph is made up of more water, sugar, and electrolytes and less large proteins than plasma
83
RBC
Oxygenate tissues & carry CO2 away from tissues; Created in RBM; Innate immune function
84
Platelets
Contain clotting factors; Originates in the bone marrow; Both immune functions
85
Monocytes
Matures to macrophages that regulates inflammation; Originates in bone marrow; Innate immune function
86
neutrophil
Phagocytic function; Highest % during immune response; Innate immune cells; Originate in bone marrow
87
Eosinophil
Regulation of allergic & tissue response, Phagocytic nature; Originate in the bone marrow; Innate immune function
88
Basophil
Allergy response; Contain anti-clotting agents; Innate immune function; Originate in bone marrow
89
B Cell
Produce specific antibodies; Originate in the bone marrow; Adaptive immune function; Circulate ONLY the lymph system
90
Killer T Cell
Attach to antigens and destroy them; Adaptive immune function; Originate in the bone marrow; Circulate the peripheral blood circulation
91
Helper T Cell
Secrete cytokines to activate macrophages; Adaptive immune function; Circulate the peripheral blood circulation; Originate in bone marrow
92
Suppressor T Cell
Regulate the production of other 2 T Cells; Adaptive immune function; Develop in the Thymus.
93
NK Cell
Identify and kill tumors and other infected cells; Adaptive immune function; Originate in the bone marrow and some other sites such as lymph nodes, thymus, or spleen.
A & P of domesticated animals
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