1
Q
Psychoanalytic theories
A
- Sigmund Freud
- believed that many of his patients’ emotional problems originated in their early childhood
- unconscious motivation
- ID, ego, superego
- emphasis on the importance of early experience and close relationships for later development
- role of unconscious mental activity
2
Q
Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
A
- each stage is characterized by a different ‘crisis’ or developmental issue that must be resolved (coined term ‘identity crisis’)
- If the dominant issue of a stage is not successfully resolved before the next stage begins the person will continue to struggle with it
- emphasis on the search for identity in adolesence has had lasting impact on modern research
3
Q
Learning theory: John Watson
A
- psychologists should study behavior, not the mind
- emphasized role of external factors in shaping social behavior (reinforcement and punishment)
- little albert experiment
- placed responsibility for guiding children’s development on parents
4
Q
Learning Theory: B.F. Skinner
A
- “a person does not act upon the world, the world acts upon him”
- repeat behaviors that bring reward (reinforcement) and suppress behaviors that lead to negative outcomes (punishment)
- attention can serve as a powerful reinforcer
- intermittent reinforcement makes behaviors resistant to extinction (e.g., responded to inconsistently)
5
Q
Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura
A
- emphasizes observation and imitation
- children’s tendency to reproduce what they learned depends on vicarious reinforcement (i.e., whether the person whose action they obserserve was rewarded or punished)
6
Q
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study Results
A
- observing someone else receive a reward or punishment for a behavior affects imitation
- children learned more than they repeated
- boys initially more aggressive than girls, but both increased their level of imitation when offered rewards
7
Q
Social cognition: dodge’s social information-processing theory
A
- children sometimes use aggression as problem-solving strategy
- highly aggressive children seem to have a hostile-attreibution bias - expectation that others are hostile to them, which becomes self-fulfilling prophecy
- Hostile attribution Bias vignettes
- e.g., child is working hard on puzzle - peer bumps into table scattering puzzle pieces and merely says “oops”
- ask children what they would do and why
8
Q
Social Experience and Hostile Attribution Bias
A
Tendencies to attribute hostile biases to others might be rooted in negative experiences with parents and peers
9
Q
Social Cognition: Dweck’s Theory of Self-Attributions
and Achievement Motivation
A
Children vary in degress they are motivated by learning goals (mastering new material) or performance goals (receiving positive assessments or avoiding negative assessments)
- learning goals: incremental/mastery orientation: motivated by learning goals; focus on effort and persistence
- entity/helpless orientation: motivated by performance goals; attribute success/failure to fixed aspects of the slef; give up in the face of failure
10
Q
Equifinality
A
lots of paths to same risk-factor (e.g., individual differences in vulnerability vs. resilience)
11
Q
The Bioecological Model
A
- Urie Bronfrenbrenner presents the child’s enviornment as composed of a series of nested structures, with every level having an impact on development
- every level, from the intimate context of a child’s home to the culture in which the family lives, impacts that child’s development.
12
Q
Sesame Street study
A
- 77% of preschoolers watched it every week and 95% had at least seen it by 3 years of age
- regional disparities in the quality of signal reception of TV antennae
- regional disparities in signal quality map onto academic performance, but only after introduction of sesame street
- stronger effect in economically disadvantaged counties
13
Q
Media Violence
A
- media violence has increased in quantity and become more graphic, sexual, and sadistic
- By 18 year of age, on average, will have witnessed 200,000 violent acts and 16,000 murders
- 89% of top selling video games contain violence
- The level of violence during saturday morning cartoons (2-25 acts per hour) is higher than the level of violence during prime time TV (3-5 acts per hour)
- 75% of violent scenes on TV show no immediate punishment or condemnation of violence
14
Q
Social Media
A
- 95% of teens have access to a smartphone
- Changing preferences in moe of communication among adolescents
- perceive both positive and negative effects of social media
- helps to feel more connected to others
- but also risk for bullying/rumor spreading
- maybe a small effect: “the association we find between digital technology use and adolescent well-being is negative but small. Effects are too small to warrant policy change”
15
Q
Emotions
A
- Psychological states that involve a combination of
- Subjective experience (e.g., I feel a sense of dread and fear)
- neural and physiological expression (e.g., sweaty palms)
- Behavioral and facial expression (e.g., expressing sympathy in voice)
- motivation to take action to achieve a goal (e.g., run away from threat)
- can vary in duration, intensity, and complexity
16
Q
Discrete Emotions Theory
A
- there are basic emotions that are innate and discrete from one another from very early in life
- distinctive bodily and facial features
- support survival and adaptation (e.g. widening of eyes and increased eye movement during fear may increase visual field)
- universal - similar expressions have been observed around the world
17
Q
Fear and Distress
A
- about escape/protection from potentially dangerous situations and elicit caregiving
- fear is common in certain contexts in infancy and childhood
- fear of strangers - no fear in strange situations at 4 months but steep increase at 8 months
- separation anxiety - emerges around 8 months and starts to decline around 15 months
- preschool age children fear imaginery things, then start to fear animals/spiders and darkness
- school age children experience fear and anxiety about challenges at school, health, and personal harm
18
Q
Anger
A
- anger is response to fustrating or threatening experience
- after children can move on their own, anger is directed at loss of control (e.g., arm restraint)
- peaks around age 2 and decline from ages 3 to 6
- decreases related to development of language and emotion regulation
19
Q
Sadness
A
- sadness is response to lass of valued person or object, and communicates needs for help and comfort
- can be expressed in combination with other emotions like anger, but not as frequently expressed in children as anger
- core emotion of certain mood disorders that tend to emerge in adolescence (e.g., depression)
- different from other negative emotions in level of arousal and typical duration
20
Q
Self-Conscious Emotions
A
- Thought to emerge later than basic emotions because they require a sense of self and understanding of self in relation to others (e.g., social expectations, evaluation)
- different appraisals about the self
- guilt - i did something bad; motivates reparative behavior
- shame - i am bad; motivates avoidance/withdrawal
- different appraisals about the self
21
Q
Guilt vs Shame
A
- can be measured in young children using “broken toy” experiment - toy rigged to fall apart
- guilt-and-shame-proeness at age 10-12 are related to less and more deviant behaviors at age 18-21 (unportected sex, illegal drug use, involvement in criminal justice system)
- parents can emphasize the “badness” of the behavior or of the child.
- cultural differences in what parents tend to emphasize, the frequency of children’s guilt and shame, and their links to positive vs negative outcomes
22
Q
Temperament
A
- biologically based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations, and relative stability over time
- due to
- genetically inherited characteristics
- prenatal environment (nutrition, teratogen, cortisol)
- complications from prematurity
23
Q
Temperament: Categorical vs Dimensional Approach
A
- Chess and Thomas divided babies into 3 categories
- easy going (40%)
- difficult (10%)
- slow-to-warm-up (15%)
- Rest displayed mixed profiled
- Rothbart and Bates suggest that there are continuous dimenstions of temperament
- e.g., fear, irritability and anger, attention, activity level, positive affect
24
Q
Measures of Temperament: Parent, teacher, and observer report
A
- endorse whether different behaviors/emotions are typical of given child
- temperament ratings are relativelt stable and predictive of future outcomes
- pros - parents have extensive knowledge of behavior/emotion across mant situations
- cons - bias; some parents may not have good unserstanding of other children as a comparison
25
Measurement: Coding of Emotions from Facial Expressions
- Elaborate systems for coding and classifying the emotional meaning of facial expressions
- e.g., FACS - Facial Affective Coding system
- Based on presence of combinations of "action units", or activation of different face muscles
- e.g., happiness = AU's 6+12 (muscles that raise cheeks and pull corners of lips)
26
SpongeBob SquarePants study
- Things happen more quickly than in sesame street
- Rapid pace - doing worse in executive functioning
- Delay of gratification, backward digit
- Suggest that immediate aftermath of fast pace has a cognitive cost for children
27
Measurement: psychophysiology
- Measures sweat on hands - increase of sweat = more conductivity in electrodes
- Can measure overall amplitude of response or intensity
- - Can measure recovery of response going back to base line
- Can measure what different types of responses there are.
28
Measures of Temperament: Behavioral observation in lab
- e.g., code behavioral inhibition during free play in unfamiliar room, adult stranger; fear in response to scary mask; laughing and smiling to blowing bubbles
- behavioral measures are predictive of future outcomes
- pro - relatively unbiased
- con - may capture state/mood rather than totality of temperament
29
Temperament and Environment
- Diathesis stress - negative temperament is a risk factor in the context of negative enviornment. Mental health disorders arise from an interaction between a pre-existing vulnerability and enviornmental stress
- differential susceptibility - negative temperament indicates openess to environment for better or for worse. The same temperament characteristic that puts some children at high risk for negative outcomes when exposed to a harsh home environment also leads them to blossom when their home environments are positive
30
Emotional Intelligence
- A set of abilities that contribute to competent social functioning:
- Be able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustration
- control impulses and delay gratification
- identify one's own and other's feelings
- regulate one's moods
- regulate the expression of emotion in social interactions
- empathsize with others
31
Emotion Regulation
- The process of initating, inhibiting, or modulating:
- feelings (e.g., changing duration or intensity of feelings using techniques listed below)
- emotion-related cognition (e.g., cognitive reappraisal - changing interpretation of emotional event)
- emotion-related physiological processes (e.g., deep breathing to slow heart rate)
- Emotion-related behaviors in the service of accomplishing one's goal (e.g., masking emotions, distraction)
32
Shift from Caregiver Regulation (Co-Regulation) to Self-Regulation
- young infants mostly rely on parents to soothe/distract them
- by 5 months of age, most infants show signs of rudimentary emotion regulation strategies, including self-comforting (e.g., thumb sucking) and self-distraction (e.g., looking away)
- young children use play for distraction and up-regulation of positive emotion, whereas older children can start to use cognitive strategies
33
Shift from Caregiver Regulation (Co-Regulation) to Self-Regulation Study
- Seeing picture of mother
- reduced amygdala reactivity in children, but not adolescents
- increased negative connectivity between prefrontal cortex and amygdala (i.e., more mature functional connectivity)
- these patterns of brain activity/connectivity were linked to less separation anxiety and more reliance on parent during times of stress
- maternal presence improved inhibitory control behaviors in children but not adolescents
34
Children’s Regulation is Shaped by Their Expectations of the Environment
- experimenter keeps (reliable) or breaks (unreliable) her promise to bring a big set of cool art supplies
- Children in reliable condition wait 4x longer in marshmallow task
- Extrapolate this effect to situations outside of the lab...
35
Prenatal socialization of Emotion
- Socialization - the process by which children acquire values, standards, and ways of thinking and feeling
- parents' expression of emotion with their children and other people (e.g., modeling)
- Parents' reactions to their children's expression of emotion (e.g., empathy)
- discussions parents have with their children about emotion and emotion regulation (e.g., coaching)
- Emotion discussion at 2-3 years predicts understanding of others' emotions at 6 years
36
Mental Health
- Sense of well-being, both internally (e.g., emotions, mood) and externally (e.g., relationships)
- Internalizing problems - anxiety, depression, somatic complaints
- Externalizing problems - aggression, impulsivity, rule breaking behavior
37
Depression
- Clinical syndrome characterized by the presense of sad or irritable mood accompanied by somatic and cognitive changes that significantly affect the individual's capacity to function
- depression is the leading cause of disability
- 300 million people are diagnosed with depression - more than heart disease, diabetes, AIDS, arthritis
- annual cost of $500 billion worldwide
- 80% of people who develop major depression experience recurrent episodes and other lifelong difficulties
38
Internalizing Problems in Adolescents Pre-COVID vs Peri-COVID
- Adolescents during the pandemic report more depressive and anxiety symptoms than matched adolescents in pre-pandemic cohort.
- CDI - Child Depressive Inventory
- MASC - Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children
- During the early stage of the pandemic, 62% of adolescents in our sample reported depressive symptoms in the clinically significant range
39
Gender Differences in Risk for Depression
- Girls at higher risk than boys
- more prone to internalizing emotions like sadness and reactive social stress
- social and cultural factors (e.g., body dissatisfaction, greater pressure to conform to social standards)
- more prone to rumination and co-rumination
40
Familial History as a Major Risk Factor for Depression
- compared daughters of mothers with and without history of depression
- All girls had never benn disgnosed with depression or anything else
- Even prior to emergence of depression, there are biological differences related to familial history - shorter telomere length and increased cortisol response to stress
41
Adversity
Broad term that encompasses range of events and circumstances that have the potential to threaten health and well-being (normal part of life)
- an umbrella term that captures different kinds of challenging/stressful life events whereas stress often refers to experience
42
Toxic Stress
The experience of chronic high levels of strss in combination with a lack of supportive adults to help mitigate the effects of stress
43
Trauma or traumatic stress
Can be triggered by single major negative event - severe stress brought on by a sudden catastrophe
44
Adverse events/conditions in childhood
- exposure to threat, deprivation, household dysfunction, and social disadvantage
- highly prevalent
- more than half of children in the U.S. are exposed to at least one kind of adverse event
- powerful predictor of well-being
- account for almost half of childhood psychiatric disorders and a quarter of adult-onset disorders
45
Assessments of Adversity
- parent-report, child-report, and child protective services
- Subjective (e.g., perceived stress) and 'objective' components (e.g., events)
- Can consider different aspects of adversity, including cumulative number or severity of events, chronic vs acute, timing, directly or indirectly experienced
46
Consequences of adversity may extend across generations
- maternal history of adversity has been associated with offspring
- lower vagal tone in children
- behavioral problems in children
- reduced intracranial volume in newborns
- altered resting-state frontoamygdala connectivity in babies
- possible pathways from maternal history of adversity are parenting, exposure to parental health difficulties, prenatal stress, etc.
47
The Developmental origins of health and disease hypothesis
- informed initially by research investigating the timing of fetal undernutrition during world war II and subsequent adult health
- the early life environment has widespread consequences for future health
- at least part of the risk for psychopathology originates from an adverse prenatal enviornment, with additional "hits" from genetic risk and the quality of the early postnatal environment
48
Associations of Right PFC with adversity (mother,
child) and child temperament
- maternal adversity is related to increased right prefrontal activity in children when doing an inhibitory control task
- other studies have found that fNIRS-based prefrontal oxygenation tracks with task difficulty
- children of mothers exposed to adversity may require more neural resources when using important cognitive functions
49
Faster pace of right hippocampal growth mediates link between perinatal adveristy and childhood depression
- hippocampal, amygdala, and intracranial volume (ICV; overall brain volume) growth trends are nonlinear
- lots of variability in starting size and how fast these regions develop (i.e., pace)
- faster growth rate but not enough to catch up to children with low or average perinatal adversity exposure
50
Resilience
- the capacity of a dynamic system to adapt successfully through multisystem processes to challenges that threaten the function, survival, or development of that system"
- the process of harnessing biological psychosocial, structural and cultural resources to sustain well being
51
Social relationships shape perceptions of safety and stress
- classic view is stress is elicited by threat cues
- newer view is that threat systems are always 'on' but are inhibited by systems involved in perception of safety cues
- stress is absence of safety
- social relationships are an external source of perceieved safety
52
Polyvagal Theory
- Vagus nerve (tenth cranial nerve) inhibits arousal and is involved in neural evaluation of safety
- RSA changes in response to changes to moment-to-moment changes in the environment
- Higher RSA supports calm, social engagement in safe environments
- decreasing RSA supporta mobilizing resources to cope with threat/challenge
53
Adaptive vs non-adaptive models
- traditional approach is non-adaptive model. That harsh environments lead to negative outcomes (e.g., deficit model, toxic stress)
- Adaptive models suggest that early environments shape the nervous system in functional way for a particular future environment (bet about what future will look like based on early environment; vigilance helps in a future dangerous environment but increases anxiety in a safe one ).
54
Stress Acceleration of frontoamygdala connectivity in previously institutionalized youth
- normative switch in frontoamygdala connectivity from positive in childhood to negative in adolescence
- negative frontoamygdala connectivity supports more adult-like emotion regulation and less separation anxiety
- previously institutionalized youth slow earlier emergence of negative frontoamygdala connectivity
- this earlier emergence looks like an adaptation because it partially protects against anxiety problems
55
Paths of Resilience
1. stress acceleration
2. stress inoculation
- early moderate stress/adversity acts like a vaccine - decreases your sensitivity to later stress/adversity
56
Stress Inoculation
- earlt life stressors faster resilience through inoculation
- in monkeys, weekly social separations in early life led to later showing
- less cortisol in response to stressors
- less clinging to mother and more exploratory in novel situations/environments
57
Skin-Deep Resilience
- Achieving resilience/success on the outside may come at a physiological cost.
- among black youths who attended schools that dispropotionately punished black students, high self-control in early adolescence predicted higher academic orientation, educational attainment, income and mental health
- among same youth, some of this achievement was linked to physiological processes implicated in cardiometabolic disease (e.g., insulin resistance)
58
Superego
- in psychoanalytic theory, the third personality structure, consisting of internalized moral standards.
superordinate level
- what we think of as conscience and is based on the child’s adoption of their parents’ standards for acceptable behavior
- guides the child to avoid actions that would result in guilt, which the child experiences when violating these internalized standards.
59
Ego
- in psychoanalytic theory, the second personality structure to develop. It is the rational, logical, problem-solving component of personality.
- arises out of the need to resolve conflicts between the id’s demands for immediate gratification and the restraints imposed by the external world.
- begins to develop into the individual’s sense of self.
60
Id
- in psychoanalytic theory, the earliest and most primitive personality structure. It is unconscious and operates with the goal of seeking pleasure.
- instinctual drives with which the infant is born
- ruled by the pleasure principle—the goal of achieving maximal gratification as quickly as possible
PSYC 2400
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