Exam Two - Objective Specific

Question 1

What are the three major types of signaling and an example for each?

Answer 1

Paracrine (neuron), Autocrine, and Endocrine (endocrine cell)

Question 2

How do you know if a hormone will bind to an intracellular receptor or a cell surface receptor?

Answer 2

Based of the the physical properties of the ligand (size/solubility), and the potential effects on the cell due to the receptor type (e.g. gene regulation, protein transport/synthesis, secretion, ion channels)

Question 3

How do changes in affinity affect the Law of Mass Action?

Answer 3

By changing how much concentration is required to activate 50% of receptors ([L][R]/[LR]=Kd).

Question 4

How do changes in specificity affect the Law of Mass Action?

Answer 4

If a ligand isn’t specific to a receptor than there will be no change to the Law of Mass Action.

Question 5

How do changes in saturability affect the Law of Mass Action?

Answer 5

How many ligands are needed to reach 100% saturation will change the Law of Mass Action and the curves on the plot.

Question 6

How do changes in concentration affect the Law of Mass Action?

Answer 6

More ligand = faster saturation and greater affinity

Question 7

What are the differences between kinase and phosphatase actions?

Answer 7

Kinases add a phosphate group, phosphatases remove a phosphate group.

Question 8

What determines if there is a biological response to a hormone?

Question 9

How do different hormones determine signaling?

Question 10

What are the different classes of hormones and their characteristics?

Question 11

What are the different parts of the pituitary gland, their cell types, regulating hormones, and secretory hormones?

Question 12

What is the anatomical and hormone regulation differences between the adenohypophysis and the neurohypophysis?

Question 13

Describe the anatomy of the hypothalamic-pituitary portal vascular system, why is this important in endocrinology?

Question 14

Describe the secretion, target effects, feedback, and mechanisms for oxytocin.

Question 15

Describe the secretion, target effects, feedback, and mechanisms for vasopressin.

Question 16

Describe the regulation and functions of prolactin.

Question 17

Diagram the HPA. (Structures, hormones, target organ, main effects, feedback loop)

Question 18

Diagram the HPT. (Structures, hormones, target organ, main effects, feedback loop)

Question 19

Diagram the HPS. (Structures. hormones, target organ, main effects, feedback loop)

Question 20

Diagram the HPG. (Structures. hormones, target organ, main effects, feedback loop)

Question 21

Explain the 2 cell-2 gonadotropin theory of estrogen biosynthesis.

Question 22

Distinguish/explain differences of male and female reproductive tract.

Question 23

How do the hormones of the female reproductive cycle drive changes in reproductive development and physiology (estrogen, progesterone, FSH, LH)

Question 24

Diagram calcium homeostasis including the effect o PTH and calcitonin on the major calcium organs/pools.

Question 25

Diagram blood glucose regulation including the mechanisms and effects of insulin and glucagon.

Question 26

Describe the different body fluid compartments, including relative size, osmolarity, and primary electrolytes and non-electrolyte components.

Question 27

Describe relative changes in size of intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments after intravenous infusion of isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic saline.

Question 28

Discuss why an animal with hypoproteinemia may have a reduction in plasma volume in spite of normal or even increased extracellular fluid volume.

Question 29

Discuss in general the major mechanisms by which salt and water balances are maintained.

Question 30

Explain why disturbances in salt balance often present clinically as changes in extracellular fluid volume (i. e. edema) while disturbances in water balance often present as changes in extracellular fluid osmolarity.

Question 31

What are the major functions of the kidneys?

Question 32

What are the major nitrogenous waste products and their sources?

Question 33

Describe the blood flow through the kidneys.

Question 34

Describe the flow of fluid through the renal tubules.

Question 35

Describe the nerve supply to the kidney.

Question 36

Describe the process by which the kidney filters the blood plasma, including the relevant cellular structure of the glomerulus.

Question 37

Describe the factors that set net filtration pressure and each of their relative contributions.

Question 38

Explain the forces that promote and oppose filtrations.

Question 39

Describe how the nervous system, hormones, and the nephron itself regulate filtration.

Question 40

Explain why serum CREA and BUN increase with significant reductions in GFR and why CREA clearance rates may be useful to evaluate renal function.

Question 41

Describe how the renal tubules reabsorb useful solutes from the glomerular filtrate and return them to the blood.

Question 42

Describe how the tubules secrete solute from the blood into the tubular fuild.

Question 43

Describe how the nephron regulates water excretion.

Question 44

Explain why glucosuria is seen in animals with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus and how this contributes to polyuria.

Question 45

Explain how the collecting duct and antidiuretic hormone regulate the volume and concentration of urine.

Question 46

Explain how the kidney maintains an osmotic gradient in the renal medulla that enable the collecting duct to function.

Question 47

Explain the role of urea in the renal medullary gradient.

Question 48

Describe how the approx. values of the osmolarity of renal filtrate change throughout the nephron and how the medullary gradient influences this change.

Question 49

Describe an acid.

Question 50

Describe a base.

Question 51

How do you calculate pH when given a concentration of hydrogen ions?

Question 52

Recognize how various sources lead to the creation of volatile acids and fixed acids.

Question 53

What is a volatile acid?

Answer 53

CO2

Question 54

What are fixed acids?

Answer 54

Lactic acid, uric acid, and sulfuric acid

Question 55

What is the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system?

Question 56

How does Le Chatelier's principles dictates directional shifts in this equation.

Question 57

What is the difference between HAGMA and NAGMA?

Question 58

How does the kidneys secrete hydrogen and bicarbonate ions and how these ions are buffered in the tubular fluid?

Question 59

Compare/Contrast metabolic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis.