1
Q
What kind of SA:V ratio do small organism have
A
A large one
2
Q
Gas exchange in single celled organisms
A
Substances just diffuse across body surface
3
Q
What features does insects have for gas exchange
A
- Trachea
- Tracheoles w/ water in the ends
- Spiracles
- Muscle fibre
4
Q
What supports the trachea
A
Rings of cartilage so it doesn’t collapse
5
Q
Why are do the tracheoles allow quick diffusion
A
Because they are directly next to cells allowing air to be directly brought to the respiring tissue
6
Q
What 3 ways are gases moved in the insect tracheal system
A
- along a diffusion gradient
- mass transport
- the ends of the tracheoles are filled with water
7
Q
How do gases move in the insect tracheal system along a diffusion gradient
A
- when cells are respiring, oxygen is used up decreasing its concentration at the ends of tracheoles -> this creates a diffusion gradient causing oxygen to diffuse from the atmosphere to the tracheoles
- carbon dioxide is produced in cells during respiration -> this creates a diffusion gradient in the opposite direction so it’s taken out into the atmosphere
8
Q
How do gases move in the insect tracheal system by mass transport
A
The contraction of muscles in insects can squeeze the trachea -> this allows mass movements of air in and out of
9
Q
How do gases move in the insect tracheal system due to tracheoles being water filled
A
- when insects undergo major activity, some anaerobic respiration takes places producing lactate
- this lactate is soluble and lowers the water potential of the muscle cells
- so water moves into cells from tracheoles by osmosis
- the water in tracheoles ends decreases in volume allowing more air to be drawn in
- this increases rate of air moved in but leads to greater water evaporation
10
Q
What are spiracles
A
Pores on the body surface of an insect which open and close by a valve to let substances in and out of the
11
Q
What are the limitations of the insect tracheal system
A
- relies mostly on diffusion for gas exchange
- and for diffusion to be effective the diffusion pathway must be short
- so insects have to be of a small size
12
Q
Structure of the gills
A
They are made up of gill filaments which have gill lamellae at a right angle
-> these increase surface area
13
Q
What is the countercurrent flow
A
The flow of water over the gill lamellae and the flow of blood within them are in opposite directions
14
Q
Why is the countercurrent so important
A
- it means that the blood is already full of oxygen when it meets water which has its maximum concentration of water
-> therefore diffusion of oxygen from the water to the blood takes place - blood with little oxygen in it meets water which has had most of its oxygen removed
-> so diffusion of oxygen from the water to blood takes place
15
Q
What is flow in the same direction called
A
Parallel flow
16
Q
Why is countercurrent flow better than parallel flow
A
Parallel flow would mean the diffusion gradient would only be maintained across part of the length of the gill lamellae and only half the available oxygen would be absorbed by the blood
17
Q
What adaptations do plant leaves have for gas exchange
A
- many stomata
- many air spaces throughout the mesophyll
- large SA of mesophyll cells for rapid diffusion
18
Q
What do the stomata do
A
- each stoma is surrounded by guard cells which can open and close the stomata and so can control the rate of gas exchange and control water loss
19
Q
What adaptations do insects have to reduce water loss
A
- small SA:V ratio
- waterproof cuticle
- spiracles -> can open and close
20
Q
What are xerophytes
A
Plants that have many adaptations to limit water loss through transpiration
21
Q
Adaptations of xerophytes
A
- thick cuticle -> waterproof barrier
- rolling up of leaves -> protects lower epidermis of stomata + traps moist air with high water potential so there’s no movement of water
- hairy leaves -> traps moist air so water potential gradient is decreased
- stomata in pits -> traps moist air
- small SA:V ratio
22
Q
What do all aerobic organisms require a constant supply of and why
A
Oxygen to release energy in the form of ATP in respiration
23
Q
What supports lungs
A
Ribcage
24
Q
Why are lungs inside the body opposed to outside
A
- air isn’t dense enough to support and protect the delicate structures
- the body would lose a lot of water and dry out
25
Features of the lungs
- trachea
- tracheoles
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- alveoli
26
Structure of trachea
- supported by rings of cartilage that prevents it from collapsing as air pressure inside falls when breathing in
- tracheal walls are made up of muscle, lined with ciliated epithelium and goblet cells
27
Structure of bronchi
- 2 divisions of the trachea that each lead to one lung
- produce mucus to trap dirt
- have cilia to move mucus towards throat
- larger bronchi are supported by cartilage -> but amount decreases as bronchi gets smaller
28
Structure of bronchioles
- walls are made of muscles lined with epithelial cells
-> this muscles lets them construct so they can control the flow of air in and out of the alveoli
29
Structure of alveoli
- have collagen and elastic fibres between alveoli -> elastic fibres allow them to stretch as they fill with air and then spring back during exhalation to get rid of carbon dioxide rich air
- lined with epithelium
30
What is the scientific word for breathing
Ventilation
31
What is the other word for inhalation and what is it
Inspiration
- when the atmospheric pressure is greater than pulmonary pressure and air is forced into the lungs
32
What is the other word for exhalation and what is it
Expiration
- when pulmonary pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure and air is forced out of the lungs
33
What muscles cause pressure changes in lungs
- diaphragm
- intercostal muscles
34
What are the types of intercostal muscles
- internal intercostal muscles -> contract during expiration
- external intercostal muscles -> contract during inspiration
35
Process of inspiration
• The external intercostal muscles contract, while the internal intercostal muscles relax
• The ribs are pulled upwards and outwards, increasing the volume of the thorax
• The diaphragm muscles contract, causing it to flatten, which also increases the volume of the thorax
• The increased volume of the thorax results in reduction of pressure in the lungs
• Atmospheric pressure is now greater than pulmonary pressure, and so air is forced into the lungs
36
Process of expiration
• The internal intercostal muscles contract, while the external intercostal muscles relax
• The ribs move downwards and inwards, decreasing the volume of the thorax
• The diaphragm muscles relax and so it is pushed up again by the contents of the abdomen that were compressed during inspiration
The volume of the thorax is therefore further decreased
• The decreased volume of the thorax increases the pressure in the lungs
• The pulmonary pressure is now greater than that of the atmosphere, and so air is forced out of the lungs
37
What types of processes are inspiration and expiration
Inspiration is an active process (uses energy)
Expiration is a largely passive process (doesn’t require much energy)
38
What is the main cause of air being forced out during breathing
The recoil of elastic tissue
BUT under more strenuous conditions, various muscles start to play a major part
39
Why is diffusion of gases between the alveoli and blood very rapid
- RBCs are slowed as they pass through the **pulmonary** capillaries -> allowing more time for diffusion
- the distance between the alveolar air and RBCs is reduced as the RBCs are flattened against the capillary walls
- the walls of the alveoli and capillaries are very thin
- large SA of alveoli and pulmonary capillaries
- well ventilated + rich blood supply -> maintains steep concentration gradient
- blood flow through the pulmonary capillaries maintains a concentration gradient
40
Why is the diffusion pathway in alveoli short
Because the alveoli only have a single layer of epithelial cells and the blood capillaries only have one layer of cells
41
What is a correlation
When a change in one of two variables is reflected by a change in the other variable
42
Vital capacity
the maximum volume of air that can be inhaled or exhaled in a single breath.
Varies depending on gender, age, size as well as height
43
Tidal volume
the volume of air we breathe in and out at each breath at rest
44
Breathing rate
the number of breaths per minute, can be calculated from the spirometer trace by counting the number of peaks or troughs in a minute
45
What is digestion
the hydrolysis of large biological molecules into smaller molecules which can be absorbed across cell membranes
46
What enzymes digest carbohydrates
- Amylases in the mouth digest larger polymers
- Maltases in the ileum break down monosaccharides
- Sucrases and lactases break down the dissacharides sucrose and lactose
47
What enzymes digest lipids and how
- Lipases by hydrolysing the ester bond between the monoglycerides and fatty acid.
- Before being broken down in the ileum, lipids are emulsified into micelles by bile salts released by the liver
48
What does emulsification do
Emulsification increases the surface area and speeds up the chemical reaction
49
What enzymes digest proteins and what are the 3 types:
- Peptidases of which they are divided into 3 main groups:
• endopeptidases
• exopeptidases
• dipeptidases
50
What does an endopeptidase do
hydrolyse peptide bonds between specific amino acids in the middle of a polypeptide
51
What does an exopeptidase do
hydrolyse bonds at ends/terminals of a polypeptides
52
What does a dipeptidase do
break dipeptides into individual amino acids
53
How are amino acids transported
Via co transport
54
How does the co transport of amino acids work
- Amino acids are absorbed by **facilitated diffusion** through specific carrier molecule in the surface membrane of epithelial cells.
- With each amino acid, **one Na+ is also taken up**, therefore amino acid absorption occurs via a process known as **co-transport**.
- A diffusion gradient for Na+ is maintained by their active transport through the base of epithelial cells where amino acids pass by facilitated diffusion.
55
Why can monoglycerides and fatty acids easily diffuse across the cell membrane
Because they are polar
56
Where do monoglycerides and fatty acids go once through the cell membrane
- into the epithelial cells lining the epithelium
- then are transported to the endoplasmic reticulum where they are reformed into triglycerides again
- then they leave the cells via vesicles into the lymph system
57
Where does lipid digestion occur
Only in the lumen of the small intestine
58
What happens in the stomach
Lipids are churned to turn them into a fatty liquid
59
What does bile contain
Bile salts
60
What is emulsification
When lipids are broken down (by binding to bile salts) into small droplets giving them a large SA
61
Where is lipase secreted from and to
From the pancreas to the small intestine
62
What do bile salts do
Bind to fat droplets and break them down into smaller fat droplets (emulsification)
63
What are micelles
Droplets that are smaller than fat droplets in emulsified lipids
64
How are micelles formed
When monoglycerides and fatty acids associate with bile salts and phospholipids
65
What does micelles do
Transport the poorly soluble monoglycerides and fatty acids to the surface of the epithelial cells where they can be absorbed
66
How do the micelles get the monoglycerides and fatty acids in the cell
- they are constantly breaking down and reforming producing a small pool of monoglycerides and fatty acids that are in solution
- only the freely dissolved monoglycerides and fatty acids can be absorbed -> not the micelles because they are non-polar
67
Where do short chain fatty acids diffuse into
Directly into the blood from the lumen of the small intestine via the epithelial cells
68
How do longer chain fatty acids diffuse into the blood
- monoglycerides and glycerol diffuse into the epithelial cells where they recombine to form triglycerides again
- these triglycerides are packed with cholesterol and phospholipids to form water soluble fat droplets called chylomicrons
- these are then transferred to a lymph vessel and then eventually into the blood system
69
How are chylomicrons transferred
By exocytosis
- when a small piece of cell surface membrane is wrapped around the lipid droplet and pinched off so that the fatty droplets are now wrapped in membrane as they enter the lymph vessels
70
Where are the triglycerides reformed in the epithelial cell
At the endoplasmic reticulum
71
What is a lacteal
A lymph vessel
72
How is a lipid droplet formed
By lipids being churned in the stomach and then emulsified by binding to bile salts from bile made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder
73
What happens after lipids are emulsified
The droplets are hydrolysed into fatty acids and glycerol by lipase from the pancreas in the small intestine
74
What is a chylomicrons
A water soluble fat droplet
75
Why are micelles used in lipid digestion
Because the components on their own are portly soluble and can’t move very well
76
Explain the sodium potassium pump
- not all available glucose can be absorbed because there’s no concentration gradient
- so sodium ions are actively transported out of epithelial cells into the blood -> takes place in a protein carrier molecule in the surface membrane
- now there’s a higher concentration of sodium ions in the blood of the intestine than inside the cells
- the sodium ions now diffuse into the cells from the lumen down a concentration gradient through a different type of protein carrier
- as the sodium ions go back they couple with glucose molecules which are carried with them
- the glucose passes into the blood by facilitated diffusion using another type of carrier
77
What powers the movement of glucose into cells
The sodium ion concentration gradient rather than ATP directly
-> this makes it an indirect rather than a direct form of active transport
78
Insect adaptations to limit water loss
- Spiracles
- Small SA:V ratio (of tracheal system not whole insect)
- Waterproof exoskeleton
79
Adaptations for quick diffusion in insects
- steel diffusion gradient
- large number of tracheoles -> increases SA
- short diffusion pathway
80
Why do fish need an exchange surface
Because they are waterproof and have a small SA:V ratio
81
Gas exchange surface features
- large SA:V ratio
- short diffusion distance
- maintained concentration gradient
82
Fick’s Law
Diffusion = SA x difference in conc / length of diffusion pathway
83
Adaptations in fish for efficient gas exchange
- large SA:V ratio created by many gill filaments cover in gill lamellae
- short diffusion pathway due to capillary network in lamellae and thin lamellae
- maintains concentration gradient by countercurrent flow
84
Countercurrent and what it does
When water flows over the gills in the opposite direction to the flow of blood in the capillaries
-> ensures that equilibrium isn’t reached
-> ensures that a diffusion gradient is maintained across the entire length of the gill lamellae
85
How do stomata reduce water floss
Close at night when photosynthesis wouldn’t be happening
86
What are xerophytic plants
Plants adapted to survive in environments with limited water
87
What is the compromise in xerophytes
They have structure features to allow efficient gas exchange whilst also limiting water loss
88
Xerophyte adaptations
- Curled leaves to trap moisture to maintain water potential
- hairs to trap moisture
- sunken stomata to trap moisture
- thicker cuticle to reduce evaporation
- longer root network to reach more water
89
What do carbohydrates need to be hydrolysed
2 enzymes
- amylases
- membrane-bound disaccharides
90
What produces amylase
The pancreas and salivary glands
91
What does amylase do
Hydrolyses polysaccharides into the disaccharide maltose by hydrolysing the glycosidic bonds
92
Where does protein digestion start and end
Starts in stomach and ends in ileum where it’s fully digested
93
What are lipids digested by
Lipase and bile salts
94
Where is lipase produced
Páncreas
95
What does lipase do
Hydrolyses the ester bond in triglycerides to form monoglycerides and fatty acids
96
Where are bile salts produced
Liver
97
What do bile salts do
Emulsify lipids to form micelles -> increases SA for lipase to act on
98
What are the 2 stages of digestion of lipids
Physical: emulsification and micelle formation
Chemical: lipase
99
What is the physical stage of lipid digestion
- lipids bind to bile salts to be emulsified
- micelles provide larger SA for faster hydrolysis by lipase
100
101
What is the chemical stage of lipid digestion
- lipase hydrolyses lipids in glycerol and fatty acids (some monoglycerides)
102
What are micelles
Vesicles formed from fatty acids, monoglycerides and bile salts
103
Where are products of digestion absorbed
across the cells lining the ileum
104
What is the ileum wall covered in
Villi
-> which have thin walls surrounded by a network of capillaries
-> epithelial cells have even smaller microvilli
105
Why is active transport and co-transport required for glucose and amino acid absorption
Because there is usually more glucose in the epithelial cells
106
107
Are insect tracheae supported by cartilage
No they are supported by chitin
108
Why are transport proteins needed to transport monosaccharides
Because monosaccharides are large
109
Explain how amino acids are transported from the lumen of the ileum into the blood
1. Amino acids move from the lumen to epithelial cells via cotransport using sodium ions
OR When the concentration of amino acids is greater in the lumen than the epithelial cells, they can move into the cell via facilitated diffusion
2. Once the amino acids are inside the epithelial cell, they enter the blood via facilitated diffusion
110
How is SA:Vol calculated
Divide surface area by volume
111
What are the advantages of using SA:Mass instead of SA:vol
Easier and quicker to find
More accurate due to irregular shapes
112
Metabolic rate
The amount of energy used by an organism within a given time
113
Respiration does what to energy
Releases it NOT produces
114
Why is a parallel glow bad
Equilibrium would be reached so oxygen wouldn’t diffuse into blood alag the whole gill
115
Explain the essential features of the alveolar epithelium that make it adapted as a gas exchange surface
• 1 cell thick -> short diffusion pathway
• folded -> large SA
• permeable -> allows gases to diffuse
• moist -> gases can dissolve for diffusion
• good blood supply from large network of capillaries -> maintain a steep concentration gradient
116
Describe how gas exchange occurs in the lungs
• Oxygen diffuses from alveolar air space into blood down its concentration gradient
• Across the alveolar epithelium then across the capillary endothelium
117
Explain the importance of ventilation
• Brings in air containing high conc. of oxygen + removes air with lower conc. of oxygen
• Maintaining concentration gradients
118
Suggest why expiration is normally passive at rest
• Intercostal intercostal muscles do not normally need to contract
• Expirstion aided by elastic recoil in alveoli
119
Suggest why people with lung disease experience fatigue
Cells receive less oxygen
Rate of aerobic respiration reduced
Less ATP made
120
Correlation
Change in one variable reflected by a change in another
121
Causation
Change in one variable causes a change in another variable
122
Correlation does not mean
Causation there may be other factors involved
123
What do xerophyte hairs do
Trap water vapour which reduces the water potential gradient between the leaf and air
124
How does a thick waxy cuticle reduce water loss
It increases diffusion distance which reduces water loss
125
What do xerophytes have to reduce their SA:V
Spines or needles
126
Describe the digestion of lipids in mammals including action of bile salts
• bile salts emulsify lipids causing them to form smaller lipid droplets
• this increases SA of lipids for increased lipase activity
• lipase (made in pancreas) hydrolyses lipids -> monoglycerides + fatty acids
• hydrolysis of ester bond
127
Describe the pathway for absorption of products of digestion in mammals
Lumen inside of ileum -> cell lining ileum -> blood
128
Suggest why membrane bound enzymes are impotent for digestion
• membrane bound enzymes are located on cell membranes of epithelial cells lining the ileum
• maintain concentration gradients for absorption
Bio Alevel
flashcards
Decks in class (12)
# Cards
-
Cells165
-
Biological Molecules226
-
Exam Questions111
-
Exchange128
-
Genetic Information, Variation And Relationships117
-
Mass Transport134
-
Immunology86
-
Energy Transfers In And Between Organisms124
-
Genetic Info, Variation And Relationships Between Organisms 293
-
Genetics, Populations, Evolution And Ecosystems84
-
Changikg Conditilns251
-
Control Of Gene Expression228
