What is a Theory and Why are they important
A theory is a set of statements or principles intended to explain a fact or phenomenon.
They are necessary because facts never interpret themselves.
Theory and practice must be connected for either to be meaningful (cannot have one without the other)
theories give us a way to see the pattern in people’s behavior and experiences
theories give us a framework for understanding
What did early theories of deviance focus on?
the supernatural
(e.g., demonology, witchcraft )
- signs and symptoms of mental illness now, were then understood as demon possession
-witches were thought to be related to the devil
-when explanations are thought to be supernatural, so are the solutions (exorcisms, sacrifices)
What are Atavists
evolutionary throwbacks, incapable of following society’s rules
What are Objective Theories?
aka positivist theories
used to explain the WHY of deviance
- they attempt to establish cause and effect as well as generalizable, universally applicable laws with the goal of improving society
-uncover the laws that determine social behavior
-include functionalist, learning and control theories
Assumptions of Functionalist Theories?
- the social structure creates deviance
-social structures fulfill important functions and are necessary for social order
-the rules that make up the social order are based on consensus
-if rules are typically functions (i.e., they contribute to social order), and if rules are based on consensus, we need to understand why come people break the rules so order can be restored
manifest vs. latent (dys)functions
manifest : obvious, intended functions, reason why a social structure exists
latent : hidden functions that are not intended, byproduct of how that structure operates
Durkheim’s Anomie Theory
a certain level of deviance is functional for society:
-increases social solidarity (brings people together to fight against deviance)
-help determine moral boundaries (reminds people what the rules are, and what the consequences are)
- tests society’s tensions (shows us which rules are outdates or unfair and need to be changed)
-reduces social tensions
beyond this optimal level, deviance becomes dysfunctional
rapid social change creates anomie (normlessness) that can result in harmful levels of deviance
Merton’s Anomie and Strain Theories
anomie results when the goals become more important than the means and strain results when there is a structural gap between the goals and the means
Institutionalized goals:
- culturally identifies goals for “success”
-wealth, power, status
Legitimate Means:
- culturally approved ways of obtaining goals
-getting an education, working hard
-access to these means are not equally available to everyone
What are the 4 modes of Adaptation
- Conformity:
-people who both experience goals and means
-have all the material elements associated with success
-not regarded with deviance - Innovation
-involves acceptance of the goals, but rejection of the means
-do not have access to the means
-substitute illegitimate means to take the goals (e.g., theft, drug dealing) - Ritualism
-do value hard work, delay of gratification
-lower their goals that within their capacity and their means - Retreatism
- reject both the goals and the means
-retreat from society
- involves the pursuit of heavy alcoholism and drug use - Rebellion (honorable mention)
-substitute both the goals and the means with goals and means that they think is better
-e.g., terrorist groups (they have a political agenda they think is better
Differential Opportunity Theory
-the structure and organization of society results not only differential access to legitimate opportunities but also differential access to illegitimate opportunities
-only applicable to gangs
-therefore the nature of opportunities determines the type of deviance (criminal gangs, retreatist gangs, conflict gangs)
General Strain Theory
- strain is produced by a variety of processes but strain alone is not sufficient to produce deviance; deviance is only produced when strain is accompanies by NEGATIVE AFFECT
- deviance is more likely if strain is unjust, severe and unable to by controlled
coping strategies for strain
cognitive, emotional and behavioral
- difficult to differentiate between cognitive and emotional
- can be prosocial or deviant
Cohen’s Status Frustration Theory
the inequalities found in the structure of society are reproduced in the classroom resulting in the formation of deliquent subcultures among lower-class boys
Key concept is the middle-class measuring rod
-the standards against which we evaluate ourselves and others; emphasizes middle-class values
-lower-class boys, exposed to middle-class aspirations they can’t reasonably attain, experience status frustration
-as a result, they join together with other similarly situated boys (mutual conversion) and develop their own oppositional norms and values by which they are able to achieve status (reaction formation)
What are Limitations of Functionalist Theories
Criticisms based on logic
- Teleological (related to goals)- tries to understand somethings purpose by looking at the results
- tautological (i.e., circular) - a statement is true just by saying the same thing twice, does not actually tell us anything
criticisms based on ideology/politics:
- supports the status quo
- according to the theory, just about anything can be associated as functional, functionalism basically perpetuates the status quo
-keeping it as it is
criticisms based on bias:
- assumes deviance is a lower-class phenomenon
-overemphasizes criminal behavior
-androcentric bias - men are deviant
Assumption of Learning Theories
- people LEARN to be deviant
- not something people are born with, not something people become because of the structure of society
Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory
deviance is learned through the same process as conformity
- focus is on the associations/interactions we have with others
-people learn techniques and motives
-people are more likely to become deviant when they are exposed to more deviant than conformist messages
What are Interactions influenced by according to the Differential Association Theory
- frequency
- the more often we have these deviant interactions, the more impact it has - duration
- the more deviant interactions occur over a period of time, the more impact it has - priority
- the earlier these deviant interactions occur in life, the more impact they have - intensity
- how important that particular group is to the individual, the more important the group, the greater the impact
Neutralization Theory
deviance is a product of a learning process in group interactions but learned motives are especially important
What are the techniques of Neutralization
- denial of responsibility
- shifting the blame to something or someone else
-“I was drunk, I did not know what I was doing” - Denial of Victim
- victim blaming
-moving the blame to the person that was harmed - Denial of Injury
- claim that no real harm was done - Appeal to Higher Loyalties
- acts of deviance is “normalized” because it was done for a higher purpose - condemnation of condemners-offenders
-people who feel condemned “try to turn the tables”
- shift the blame/focus to the acts of deviance of others
Social Learning Theory
the likelihood of future action is based on:
- differential association
-definitions
- imitation
-differential reinforcement
What are Limitations of Learning Theories
- differential association theory has been criticized on methodological grounds
- neutralization theory has been criticized for failing to address contact and also because of its reasoning and methodology
Control Theories
- focus on why people DO NOT become deviant
assumptions:
- deviance is inherently attractive, yet most people do not engage in deviance
- social control is what compels people to conform
Social Bonds Theory
4 types of social bonds promote conformity:
- attachment
- people with weak attachments, they are more likely to commit acts of deviance because they are not concerned with what other people think of them - commitment
- the energy and the effort we spend on conventional things
- too busy participating in conventional things to participate in deviant actions - involvement
- belief
- to what extent have we internalized conformist behavior
Self-Control Theory
those who lack self-control are believed to be more prone to deviance
-proper child-rearing is thought to be essential for the development of self-control
- levels of self-control tend to remain quite stable through the life course
