Extreme environments Flashcards

Question

Why is desertification occuring in the Sahel region?

Answer 1

* Unpredictable weather patterns caused by climate change * Overcultivation and overgrazing by humans * High population means aggressive forms of harvesting occur to feed people which reduces soil fertility

Answer 2

* Farmers having to give up their land * Reduced harvest can lead to famine and reduced income * Forced migration due to food insecurity * Loss of biodiversity * Increased sedimentation of streams and reservoirs due to soil erosion. * Loss of traditional knowledge and skills

Answer 3

NGOs have helped come up with 3 simple solutions for farmers Digging zai pits - pit is dug and filled with organic matter, water is redirected by sides of pit, and termites are attracted by organic matter. Termites dig deep channels to help soil absorb soil and nutrients. Seeds can then be planted in the pit Farmers protect tree cover in order to provide increased soil fertilisation, food and fuel. The tallest stems of the tree are protected, and unwanted stems and side branches are cut to avoid new sprouts competing for resources. More trees mean more shade, higher biodiversity, a rise in water level and less wind erosion. Stone lines can be constructed that follow the contours of the field. They help farmers to harvest rainwater and reduce soil erosion. For example, the stones slow down the flow of water and prevent minerals from being washed off the fields. These changes led to a 40% increase in crop yield the year after implementation

Answer 4

The accumulation of soluble salts in soil to the extent that soil fertility is severely reduced, caused by evapotransipration of water from surface, leaving salt deposits in soil

Answer 5

Land degradation resulting from climatic variations and human activities

Answer 6

* Climate change -> Increased temperature and less reliable rainfall -> heavier more harmful rainfall events -> soil leaching (nutrients running downhill) -> soil erosion -> desertification * Natural climate variation -> natural variation in rainfall -> periods of drought -> soil erosion -> desertification * Population growth -> over grazing, monocultures (only growing one type of crop), deforestation -> overcultivation -> soil erosion -> desertification

Answer 7

* Planting trees anchors the soil, increases moisture levels and slows wind erosion. * Africa is building a green wall from Senegal to Djibouti. * Vegetation fences are also used to anchor the soil. * Farming without ploughing can also be used. This is called zero tillage farming.

Answer 8

Northern Russia, in northwestern Siberia, above the Arctic Circle.

Answer 9

Pilbara region, Western Australia, ~1,200 km from Perth. Arid, hot desert environment with very little rainfall.

Answer 10

Yamal holds about 20% of Russia’s gas reserves Important for Russia’s economy and global energy supply (especially Europe).

Answer 11

One of the largest single iron ore deposits in the world (~1.5 billion tonnes in Mount Whaleback). Supplies the global steel industry; China is a major buyer. Key for Australia’s economy, contributing billions in export revenue.

Answer 12

Extreme cold: Winters drop below −50°C, making work and machinery very hard to operate. Permafrost: Frozen ground can melt and damage pipelines and buildings. Remote location: Hard to access; rely on ice roads, rivers, and seasonal ports. Environmental issues: Arctic ecosystems are fragile; oil spills are very damaging. Resource nationalism: Russian government limits foreign investment; controls operations. High costs: Transport, heating, and housing workers in Arctic conditions is expensive.

Answer 13

Inaccessibility: Remote location; long supply routes for workers, machinery, and ore. Climate: Extremely hot summers (up to 50°C) and arid conditions; risk of heat stress for workers, water scarcity, and dust storms. FIFO system: Workers fly in for a set period (e.g., 2 weeks), then fly home; housing provided in mining camps. FIFO lifestyle can cause mental health issues due to isolation and long shifts. High cost of flying workers in/out. Limited economic benefit to local towns if workers do not live nearby permanently. Political factors: Regulation by the Australian government; environmental approvals needed. Indigenous land rights and agreements; conflict with local Aboriginal communities if mining affects sacred land. Infrastructure costs: Roads, railways, and ports needed to transport ore to international markets.

Answer 14

Creates jobs and brings money to local communities. Improves energy security for Russia and other countries that import gas. Encourages new Arctic technology, pipelines, and infrastructure.

Answer 15

Provides jobs and economic growth in the Pilbara region. Supports Australia’s export economy, especially iron ore to Asia. Encourages investment in transport infrastructure (railways and ports). Technology and automation reduce human risk in harsh conditions. Role of Fly-In Fly-Out (FIFO) Workers: Provides employment in remote areas where the local population is small. Reduces pressure on local towns’ housing and services. Skilled workforce can rotate without permanently relocating families.

Answer 16

Gazprom – main gas extraction company. Rosneft – major oil company. Indigenous Nenets – traditional herders affected by extraction. Russian Government – manages and controls extraction projects.

Answer 17

Indigenous Nenets people: pipelines and drilling disturb reindeer herding. Environmental groups: warn about ecosystem damage. Companies vs. Government: Gazprom and Rosneft operate under strict Russian state rules. International energy politics: Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (2022) led to EU sanctions. Europe reduced pipeline imports from Russia, causing gas prices to rise.

Answer 18

BHP – operates Mount Whaleback mine. Indigenous communities – traditional landowners. FIFO workers – labour force in remote mining camps. Australian Government – regulates mining, safety, and environmental laws. Global steel companies / importers (e.g., China) – purchase the iron ore.

Answer 19

BHP (mining company) vs local Aboriginal groups: negotiations over land use. Environmental groups vs mining operations: dust, habitat loss, and water use concerns. FIFO workers vs companies/communities: mental health and social issues - increased rates of sexual attacks when FIFO miners came in - affects local communities and families The government regulates mining and ensures royalties for local communities and national revenue.

Answer 20

Mali - Gold mining * Child labour working in poor conditions * Working in cramped condition causes back pain and health issues, the mines could also collapse as they are unsafe and kill miners at any moment. * Workers given not enough pay and goods are expensive * Mercury is used to separate gold from other rocks, and is very dangerous for handling, can cause neurological or digestive damage

Answer 21

* The Arctic 8 (USA, Canada, Russia, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Denmark have claimed huge portions of the Arctic seabed. * Right now Arctic 8 countries can claim territory within 200 nautical miles of their shoreline (this is known as an EEZ - exclusive economic zone). The countries can extract resources from their EEZ e.g. fishing, oil drilling etc.

Answer 22

* 50% fuel savings of Arctic sea-routes for trade from Asia to Europe. * Shipping along Arctic sea routes has already grown by 20x. * Resources worth trillions of dollars are locked up in the Arctic Ocean.

Answer 23

Resource competition – oil, gas, minerals as ice melts Territorial disputes – overlapping claims (e.g. Russia, Canada, Denmark) Shipping conflicts – control of new routes (Northern Sea Route, Northwest Passage) Environmental protection vs exploitation – fragile ecosystems at risk Indigenous rights – conflicts over land use and livelihoods

Answer 24

* Russia will struggle to exploit Siberian and Arctic oil reserves without US/EU TNCs. * The US may benefit as they are also a major supplier to EU markets. * Russia will have less revenue to fund war in Ukraine. * It may help them towards a peaceful solution in Ukraine (which the US and the EU are both after) if Russia agrees to peace in order to rid itself of sanctions.

Answer 25

Increased temperatures: temperature rises are predicted to be between 1.0-2.75 degrees in Sahel, which exacerbate drought conditions, increase evaporation rates, and contribute to desertification. Desertification: Reduced rainfall and increased temperatures can lead to soil degradation, loss of vegetation cover, and the expansion of desert areas, making it challenging for communities to sustain agriculture and livelihoods. Changes in precipitation patterns: More frequent and severe droughts, as well as unpredictable rainfall patterns, making it difficult for communities to plan agricultural activities. Increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events: heatwaves, storms, and flash floods can destroying infrastructure, disrupting livelihoods, and exacerbating food and water insecurity.

Answer 26

The Sahel is a semi-arid zone, south of the Sahara desert that stretches east to west across the African continent

Answer 27

Involves planting a wall of trees and vegetation across the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. Great Green Wall aims to restore degraded land, combat desertification, and improve soil fertility. This helps to prevent soil erosion, retain water, and promote sustainable land management practices.

Answer 28

More than 80% of the Sahel's population relies on agriculture to make a living. New hardy grain varieties have been at the Rural Economy Institute (IER), in Mali, to respond to the varying levels of rainfall in the country. Hybrid sorghum grains have been found to produce yields of three to four tonnes per hectare, compared to non-hybrid varieties that manage two to three tonnes even in a good season.

Answer 29

Yamal megaproject - huge Russian energy project focused on extracting natural gas from the Yamal Peninsula. It is run by big Russian companies like Gazprom. The ground in Yamal is mostly permafrost, and as it melts, it becomes unstable. This can cause roads, pipelines, and buildings to crack or collapse, making it harder and more dangerous to drill for gas.

Answer 30

They rely on reindeer herding, but warmer temperatures are changing the land. Ice is melting, the ground is becoming unstable, and reindeer migration routes are shifting, making it harder to find good grazing areas. They’re also losing land to big energy companies.

Answer 31

* Flexible migration routes – The Nenets adjust reindeer herding routes to avoid unstable ice and changing tundra conditions * Traditional knowledge + modern tech – Combining indigenous knowledge with GPS and weather forecasts to manage risk - also using snow mobiles * Diversifying income – Some families add fishing, wage work, or small trade alongside herding * Government support – Backing from Russian government (e.g. subsidies, services), though limited and uneven * Infrastructure adaptation – Using more permanent shelters or modern equipment to cope with harsher conditions

Extreme environments Flashcards

(56 cards)