Energy systems - ATP-PC - alactacid
Source of fuel
- Creatine Phosphate
The efficiency of ATP production
- ATP rapidly available, without oxygen supplies
The duration that the system can operate
- ATP supplies are exhausted after 1-2 seconds
- CP enables resynthesis for another 10-12 secs
Cause of fatigue
- Maximum or near-maximum effort causes fatigue
- Fatigue is caused by an
inability to continuously synthesise ADP from CP
- Fatigue is evident in events 10-12 which require maximum effort
By-products of energy production
- NO by-products which can cause fatigue
- Muscular contractions will produce heat
Process and rate of recovery
- Quick recovery
- Within 2 mins most ATP and CP supplies are restored
- 50% of CP recovery occurs in the first 30 seconds of rest
Example
- 100m running a sprint, shot put, weightlifting
Energy systems - lactic acid
Source of fuel
- ATP produced by anaerobic glycolysis
The efficiency of ATP production
- ATP produced while glucose stores are available in muscles, oxygen supply not required
The duration that the system can operate
- 30-60 seconds
- 3 minutes @75-80% effort
Cause of fatigue
- Increased accumulation of hydrogen ions(lactic acid)
By-products of energy production
- Pyruvic acid, which in the absence of oxygen produces lactate and hydrogen ions
Process and rate of recovery
- Removal of hydrogen ions through the blood system to the liver within 15-30 mins(active recovery). The liver can then convert to carbon dioxide and water or convert to glucose, the glycogen to restore glycogen levels in the liver and muscles.
Example
- 400m run, 200m swim
Energy system - aerobic system
Source of fuel
- Carbohydrates and fats
The efficiency of ATP production
- ATP available through aerobic glycolysis
The duration that the system can operate
- Unlimited energy supply (depending on intensity and availability of more glycogen/food/oxygen)
Cause of fatigue
- Depletion of glycogen
- Accumulation of hydrogen ions
- Hypothermia or hyperthermia
By-products of energy production
- Carbon dioxide, water(sweat)
Process and rate of recovery
- Dependant on the duration, and intensity of activity
- Continuous -10-48hrs
- Intermittent - 5-24hrs
Example
- Triathlon, Rowing, 1500m swim, marathon
Types of training and training methods - Aerobic
Continuous
- Sustained aerobic effort
20 mins +
- Heart rate remains above the aerobic threshold and within the aerobic target zone
- Jogging, cycling, aerobics, marathon, cross country
Circuit
- Develops aerobic capacity and potential to make a substantial improvement in ME, strength and flexibility
- One activity to the next after completing a given amount of reps
- Aerobic or anaerobic in nature depends upon the type, time and number of circuits required
- Is more effective when the principle of progressive overload is used.
- Circuit = build up gradually 10 push ups etc
Aerobic Interval
- Involves alternating sessions of work and recovery
- Performs a given amount of work a short rest period doesn’t allow enough time for full recovery + thus maintains stress on the aerobic system
- Effectively develops aerobic endurance
- 8, 400m runs to repeat every 2 mins.
Fartlek
FARTLEK = SPEED PLAY
- Utilises speed play, speed and terrain varies throughout the training
- Engages both the aerobic (jogging) and anaerobic (sprinting)
- Training is useful in conditioning players and is often used in pre-season training
- 75-85% MHR reflects touch footy, an example of above aerobic threshold
- Training on sand
Types of training and training methods - anaerobic
Anaerobic interval
- Sprint training over short periods using maximum effort
- Trainings are directed towards developing speed e.g 100m and touch football → speed, agility and acceleration
- Plyometrics is a common training style to develop anaerobic power. Exercises that produce an explosive muscular contraction
- To develop speed whilst focusing on technique, rest periods need to be extended as this allows lactate to disperse as this can increase quality improvement
- 100m 95% and then walk back and complete 5 times
- F45 and HIIT
- 1min hard run, 2 min rest
Types of training and training methods - flexibility
PNF (Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation)
- Progressive cycle incorporating a static stretch, an isometric contraction and a period of relation in the lengthened position
- Aim at stretching and strengthening the muscle in a safe movement
- Resistance is provided by a partner or fixed object
- PNF useful in rehab as the isometric component strengthens the muscle
- Cheerleader stretch
Static
- Muscle is slowly stretched to a position (endpoint or limit) which is held for about 30 secs
- Performed smoothly & slowly, taking the muscle to a point where there is a stretch without discomfort
- Isometric stretching
- Rehabilitation of injury and in the warm up and cool down of training sessions
- Calve stretch against wall or static object
Ballistic
- Involves movements of swinging and bouncing for extra stretch and forces the joint to go beyond its normal range of movement
- Potentially dangerous as it creates risk for injury with the force placed on the joint and muscle and activates stretch reflex
- Only used by elite athletes after a thorough warm up
- Bouncing stretch
Dynamic
- Dynamic stretching attempts to mimic movements experienced in a game
- Popular for warm ups and pre-training routine
- Actions attempt to reduce muscle tightness rather than lengthen muscle fibres
- More controlled than ballistic but still not as safe as static and PNF due to the tension placed on muscles and joints
- Arm circling → swimmers before
- A golfer swinging the club before hitting the ball → warm-ups and pre-training routines
- Soccer players → open up the gates, partner swinging stretches
Types of training and training methods - strength
Free/fixed weights
- lifting a certain weight against gravity to train specific muscles or groups of muscles
- body not just develop the major muscles being used in the activity, but also develops the smaller muscles used to stabilize the movements.
- Dumbbells
- Barbells
Elastic
- Resistance bands are a form of resistance training and are commonly used in home gyms
Bands are anchored by a wall fixture or against the body
- Elastic/resistance bands
Hydraulics
- The resistance provided by hydraulic exercise equipment is directly related to the amount of force provided by the user.
- The harder you push or pull the faster you move, the more resistance you create
- Designed to apply pressure in both directions, both lifting and lowering
- Outdoor park gym
Principles of training
- Progressive overload
- Reversibility
- Specificity
- Variety
- Training thresholds
- Warm-up and cool down
Principles of training - progressive overload
Progressive overload:
- Progressive overload is when the workload for a training session progressively increases as the athlete adapts to training.
- This increase in workload is usually done to maintain the same intensity of training after the adaptations have occurred
AEROBIC: To enhance performance: - Increase duration - Increase distance - Increase intensity E.g. soccer - 80% of MHR - Treadmill run incline 2, at 16km/h, 4 times a week ∴ With an increased incline, speed and duration it ensures overtime the stress on the body decrease ∴ body adapts and becomes easier.
STRENGTH: To enhance performance: - Increased resistance(weights) - Increased repetitions - Increased sets E.g. rugby league - 3 sets of lifting 110kg, 12RM with 2-minute rest ∴An adaptation is created through increased weights which increases strength and develops recovery times and endurance(muscular).
Principles of training - reversibility
Reversibility:
- Reversibility is the fact that when training stops the adaptations made are lost.
- Adaptations are generally lost at a similar rate to which they were gained
AEROBIC
To enhance performance:
- 2 sessions of aerobic training each week
- Without training for 4-6 weeks, effects become evident
E.g tennis(knee injury)
- Swimming twice a week
∴ Able to maintain aerobic endurance yet, not causing more harm to an injury, hence preventing aerobic decline.
STRENGTH
To enhance performance:
- Maintain 1 session a week at the previous intensity
- Without training after 2 weeks effects become evident
E.g. shot put (shoulder injury)
with an injured arm could participate in training that uses elastics and targets the arms once a week
∴Able to maintain muscular endurance and strength without
Physiological adaptation - resting heart rate
The number of times your heart beats per minute at rest.
Progressive overload:
As it gradually increases the frequency, intensity or duration of aerobic activity increases the amount of blood pumped by the heart with each contraction, which improves aerobic efficiency and thus performance.
E.g if a cyclist rides 10km for 30min, 3 times a week, they will adapt to the training, but RHR will further decrease if the ride is increased to 12km.
Specificity:
Aerobic training reduces RHR, specificity can develop this performance-enhancing adaptation by ensuring training uses aerobic methods such as continuous training and occurs within the aerobic training zone (70-85% of MHR).
Physiological output - stroke volume and cardiac output
Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart per contraction.
Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart per minute,
Progressive overload:
Progressive overload contributes to improved performance because gradually increasing an athlete’s workload increases the heart’s contractility and capacity, resulting in increased nutrient transportation and the flow of blood to muscles during exercise. ∴increasing stroke volume and cardiac output
Reversibility:
Reversibility also develops stroke volume and cardiac output as it guides athletes to train continuously. e.g. a tennis player with an injured knee could participate in swimming twice a week to maintain aerobic performance. ∴continual intensity increases stroke volume and cardiac output
Physiological adaptations - oxygen uptake and lung capacity
Oxygen uptake refers to the body’s ability to absorb oxygen through the lungs and into the blood, transport this oxygen sufficiently to the muscle and then transport the oxygen out of the blood and into the muscle cell where it is used for energy production.
Training Thresholds:
Oxygen uptake improves in response to training thresholds because aerobic training must occur between the aerobic (70% of MHR) and anaerobic thresholds (85% of MHR). e.g. a 20-year-old rower must train at an intensity of 140-170bpm in order to increase oxygen uptake through.
Specificity:
Aerobic training reduces RHR, specificity can develop this performance-enhancing adaptation by ensuring training uses aerobic methods
such as continuous training and occurs within the aerobic training zone (70-85% of MHR).
Muscle hypertrophy
Increase in the size of the muscle cross-sectional area because of an increase in myofibrils (the tissue component of the cell responsible for contraction) within the muscle cell (myocyte)
Warm-up and cool down:
They prepare athletes for maximal training so they can foster optimal results and prevent injury and DOMs(delayed onset muscle injury) so that athletes can quickly resume the training needed to gain adaptations.
Variety:
Size of a muscle and it increases in response to variety because muscles quickly become accustomed to training and will only continue to grow if exercises are varied. e.g. a weightlifter should not only use free or fixed weights to enhance MH but could also use elastics or hydraulics.
Haemoglobin levels
The molecule in blood that binds with oxygen and transports it around the body in the blood. It is contained within the red blood cell and is responsible for giving the cell its red colour when bound with oxygen.(high altitudes)
Progressive overload:
Increase in response to progressive overload because it is required to gradually and safely increase altitude and training hence improving oxygen uptake which increases the haemoglobin levels. ∴increasing intensity of training increases the flow of blood in the body, therefore increasing oxygen levels in the body
Specificity:
Improve by applying specificity to ensure the use of aerobic training as it assists in increasing blood plasma and volume and red blood cells. e.g. marathon runners who performed continuous 10km runs would increase their haemoglobin levels by up to 20%.
Fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibres
- Fast-twitch muscle fibres are the fibres used for strength, power, and movements of high intensity and short duration. They can be linked with the two anaerobic energy systems, which means the adaptations in these fibres help in the use of these systems.
- Slow-twitch muscle fibres are used for movements that have a long duration. They are red in colour because of the extra blood supply they have in order to assist the aerobic energy system.
Specificity &
Training thresholds:
Fibres both develop in response to specificity and training thresholds because athletes must perform particular types of movements within certain thresholds to target each fibre. e.g. a 100m sprinter could perform explosive movements above the anaerobic threshold to develop FTMF and enhance their speed and a triathlete could perform sustained movements between the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds to develop STMF and improve their endurance.
Motivation
An internal state that activates, directs and sustains behavior towards achieving a particular goal. This ideal can energize an individual and direct(focus) goal-orientated behavior.
Without motivation, athletes:
- May not want to train at full intensity
- May not attend all training sessions
- Not perform at highest capacity
- E.g. swimmers - train before/after school 5-6 days a week - looking at a line
- positive and negative motivation
- intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Motivation - positive and negative
Positive Motivation:
Occurs when an individual’s performance is driven by previous reinforcing behaviors.
- When the athlete performs because they have received rewards for similar actions in the past and realise that continuing to perform as required results in additional success.
- Athletes pursue success.
- E.g. crowd appreciation and trophies
Negative Motivation:
Characterised by an improvement in performance out of the fear of consequences of not performing to expectations.
- Inspiring an athlete to perform well because they expect to be (e.g.)punished if they fail may work on occasions, but has serious shortfalls.
- Indecision, lack of creativity, fear of risk-taking and susceptibility to ‘choking’; are some performance inhibiting behaviours that might surface.
- Long term effects can be the destruction of confidence, initiative and self-belief (reverse of what motivation is meant to achieve)
Motivation - intrinsic and extrinsic
Intrinsic Motivation:
Internal motivation comes from within the individual.
Self-propelling force as the individual may have an interest in the task, enjoy learning and performing movements
Self-sustaining and self-reinforcing because effort and personal accomplishment becomes its own reward
Intrinsically motivated people like to become masters/experts at tasks and not just participants
E.g. just finishing a triathlon is motivating no matter the result
Extrinsic
External motivation occurs when the individual’s internal state is modified by sources originating from outside the person. Often associated with material reinforcement - money and trophies, people - coaches pep talk and parental praise, recognition - schools sportsman award.
- Focuses on the product or what can be gained, compared to intrinsic motivation that focuses on process and development of competence
- Effort and desire for achievement are related to the expectation of an outside reward or fear of punishment from an outside source.
- Therefore external motivation can be manipulated by those responsible for its making. For example, bribes. It does not promote longevity as money & praise are not sustainable.
Anxiety and arousal
Predominantly a psychological process characterised by fear or apprehension in anticipation of confronting a situation perceived to be potentially threatening. In other words - when we experience situations where we are at risk, uncertain, threatened or attacked, we become anxious and take steps to address the concern. At extreme, anxiety disrupts and unsettles behaviour by lowering the individual’s concentration and affecting muscle control.
- trait and state anxiety
- source of stress
- optimum arousal
Anxiety and arousal - trait and state
Trait anxiety:
- Characteristic of a person
- Generally anxious about unknown outcomes, it is a part of who the person is
- Need to develop mechanisms to control the levels of anxiety that arise with performance →relaxation techniques
State anxiety:
- Arises in a particular situation and how a person responds
Variables include:
- Importance of situation
- Uncertainty of the outcome
- Harder to control → mental rehearsal, visualisation
Anxiety and arousal - sources of stress
Stress - response of the body to a demand placed on it.
Social stressors - events or people that place demands upon an athlete.
- e.g. pressure from coaches, parents, peers, and others who are held in esteem by the athlete
Competition stressors - the pressure exerted by opponents during the performance.
- e.g. in NRL, versing a clearly superior opponent who is larger can be intimidating especially when tackling.
Physiological stressors - stress placed on the body.
- e.g. pressures of having to perform learned skills under the demands of competition.
Psychological stressors - thoughts that impact confidence.
- e.g. netball players who think they have to get every goal will place pressure on themselves to achieve this.
Anxiety and arousal - optimum arousal
Arousal is a specific level of anxiety and can be experienced prior to and during the performance, it is essentially a physiological state, whilst anxiety is a predominantly psychological state.
- Levels can either facilitate or hinder the execution of specific skills or task components.
Seen on the inverted U hypothesis which represents the relationship between an athlete’s level of arousal and their performance.
- Low level of arousal: may lead to distraction, disinterest, and a depressed level of motivation for the individual
- Moderate arousal: optimal performance. Both over-arousal and under-arousal contribute to adverse performance.
- Over arousal: movements without precision(careless), being excessively tense, and unable to concentrate.
Dependent on activity:
- Difficult skills with few muscle groups involved → levels do not need to be high to be optimal.
- e.g. archery, darts, and golf putt.
- Easy skills with large body movements → levels need to be increased to be optimal.
- e.g. running, pole vault, and weight-lifting.
Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety
- concentration/attention skills
- mental rehearsal/visualisation
- relaxation techniques
- goal setting
