1
Q
What is an infectious disease?
A
Microorganisms that use a host’s resources to reproduce, resulting in an immune response or physiological disruption
Most microorganisms don’t cause disease; those that do are called pathogens.
2
Q
What are the 6 major groups of pathogens that infect humans?
A
- Viruses
- Bacteria
- Protozoa
- Fungi
- Helminths
- Prions
3
Q
Which age group is most affected by infectious diseases?
A
Neonatal and postneonatal
4
Q
What is an epidemic?
A
Increase in the incidence of infection in a population at a specific time
5
Q
Why do we still have infectious diseases?
A
- Conflicts between pathogens and hosts
- Novel environments
- New diseases
- Zoonotic diseases
6
Q
What is virulence?
A
The severity of a disease brought on by a pathogen
7
Q
Who developed the germ theory of disease?
A
Robert Koch
8
Q
What are Koch’s postulates?
A
- Pathogen must always be found in persons with the disease
- Pathogen must be isolated and grown in pure culture
- The culture should cause the disease when introduced into a healthy individual
- Pathogen can be isolated from second individual and grown in culture
9
Q
What are the characteristics of viruses?
A
- DNA or RNA surrounded by protein
- Obligate parasites
- Mimic host cell proteins to bind with receptors on host cells
10
Q
What defines bacteria?
A
- Single-celled prokaryotic organisms
- Reproduce by duplicating their DNA and dividing
- Over 400 identified genera; 40 known to cause disease in humans
11
Q
What are protozoa?
A
- Single-celled eukaryotic organisms
- Able to evade host’s immune defenses
- Infections are difficult to treat and symptoms may be chronic
12
Q
What is the role of fungi in infectious diseases?
A
- Eukaryotic organisms
- 70,000 species, few harmful to humans
- Low virulence unless host is immunocompromised
13
Q
What are helminths?
A
- Multicellular organisms
- 3 types cause disease in humans: roundworms, tapeworms, flukes
- 50% of the world’s population is infected today
14
Q
What are prions?
A
- Infectious proteins
- Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
- Untreatable and fatal
15
Q
What is direct transmission?
A
Exploitation of the most permeable parts of the host’s body (skin, reproductive tract, respiratory and digestive system)
16
Q
What factors favor selection for higher virulence?
A
- Intermediary disease vectors
- Transmission does not require host to be mobile
17
Q
What factors favor selection for lower virulence?
A
- Casual human-human transmission
- Transmission requires host to be mobile
18
Q
What is global health?
A
A field that aims to improve wellbeing and reduce health disparities around the world
19
Q
What are emerging infectious diseases?
A
Infectious diseases whose incidence in humans has increased over recent decades
20
Q
What are resurgent infectious diseases?
A
Infectious diseases whose prevalence had declined but is now increasing again
21
Q
What are some major symptoms of tuberculosis?
A
- Coughing and shortness of breath
- Weakness and fatigue
- Chills, fever, night sweats
- Loss of weight
22
Q
How is tuberculosis spread?
A
- Droplet transmission from coughs or sneezes
- Survives on surfaces for months
23
Q
What is the difference between active and latent tuberculosis?
A
- Active TB: symptomatic, contagious
- Latent TB: asymptomatic, not contagious
24
Q
What challenges exist in ancient TB research?
A
- Limited archaeological evidence
- Older bones are harder to find and more degraded
25
What are the health consequences of natural disasters worsened by climate change?
* Destroyed homes, clinics, and infrastructure
* Food shortages
* Limited access to health information
26
What is the first line of defense against pathogens?
* Skin
* Mucous membranes
27
What were the health consequences of the pandemic lockdown?
Destruction of homes and healthcare centers, destroyed sanitation systems, disrupted tourism, destroyed crops, food shortages
## Footnote
Major sources of income and basic needs were severely impacted.
28
What is the first line of defense against pathogens?
Skin, mucous membranes, evolved defenses (vomiting, diarrhea, fever, iron sequestering)
## Footnote
These defenses help to recognize and respond to pathogens effectively.
29
What is the role of phagocytes in the immune system?
Recognize and destroy pathogens
## Footnote
Phagocytes are key components of the innate immune system.
30
How does the adaptive immune system differ from the innate immune system?
Responds slowly, high specificity, memory capability
## Footnote
The adaptive system includes lymphocytes and provides long-term immunity.
31
What are epitopes?
Sections of pathogen proteins identifiable as non-self
## Footnote
Epitopes are crucial for the immune system to recognize pathogens.
32
What is herd immunity?
Indirect protection from infectious disease when a large percentage of a population becomes immune
## Footnote
Protects individuals who cannot receive vaccinations.
33
What physiological processes are involved in the autonomic nervous system's immediate stress response?
Mobilizes energy, increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and mental acuity
## Footnote
This response is critical for survival during acute stress.
34
What is allostasis?
Maintaining stability through change
## Footnote
It's the physiological process that allows organisms to adapt to stressors.
35
What can chronic stress lead to?
Damage to cardiovascular system, immunosuppression
## Footnote
Chronic stress affects health negatively and can lead to various diseases.
36
What are the effects of chronic cortisol release?
Increased risk for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes
## Footnote
Chronic cortisol can lead to negative metabolic effects.
37
What is socioeconomic status (SES)?
A composite measure including income, occupation, education, and housing conditions
## Footnote
SES influences health outcomes significantly.
38
What does the 'SES gradient' refer to?
Every step downward in SES correlates with poorer health
## Footnote
A stark difference in health outcomes exists between different SES levels.
39
What is scientific racism?
Use of scientific evidence to justify racial superiority or inferiority
## Footnote
It is based on flawed biological assumptions about races.
40
What is a cline?
A character gradient over geographic space
## Footnote
It illustrates the continuous nature of biological variation among human populations.
41
True or False: Race explains the majority of human genetic variation.
False
## Footnote
Most genetic variation occurs within populations, not between them.
42
What is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis?
A hormonal stress response system involving CRH, ACTH, and cortisol
## Footnote
It plays a key role in stress response and metabolic regulation.
43
What are the primary cells involved in the adaptive immune response?
Lymphocytes (T cells and B cells)
## Footnote
These cells provide high specificity and memory against pathogens.
44
Fill in the blank: The __________ is responsible for the body's 'fight or flight' response.
Sympathetic nervous system
## Footnote
This system prepares the body to respond to immediate threats.
45
What is passive immunity?
Uses pre-formed antibodies from other individuals
## Footnote
This type of immunity provides immediate protection but is temporary.
46
What are some common symptoms of measles?
High fever, runny nose, cough, watery eyes, rash, Koplik spots
## Footnote
Symptoms can lead to serious health complications if not treated.
47
What is the primary B-cell response to vaccination?
B cells detect antigen, multiply, and produce antibodies
## Footnote
This response can take several days to develop.
48
What is the role of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)?
Presents pieces of pathogenic proteins for T cell recognition
## Footnote
MHC is crucial for the immune system's ability to target intracellular pathogens.
49
Is race synonymous with biology?
No, race is not biology, but race BECOMES biology
## Footnote
This concept is discussed by Gravlee (2009) in the context of systemic racism and its effects on health.
50
What are the factors that shape the social construct of race?
* Historical factors
* Contemporary socioeconomic circumstances
* Educational circumstances
* Variation in historical classification systems
## Footnote
These factors contribute to the social understanding and implications of race.
51
What must individuals of mixed heritage do regarding race?
Must 'choose'
## Footnote
This highlights the complexities of racial identity in mixed-heritage individuals.
52
Why can we see racial differences in health?
* Genetics
* Social causation
* Unequal access to healthcare
* Unequal treatment of illness
* Racism
* Embodied social inequality → Altered biological pathways
## Footnote
These factors illustrate the multifaceted reasons behind health disparities among racialized groups.
53
True or False: Systemic racism has no effect on biology.
False
## Footnote
Systemic racism becomes embodied in the biology of racialized groups, reinforcing inequalities.
med anthro
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