1
Q
Change occurs across the lifespan primarily due to DNA factors.
A
False
2
Q
Change occurs across the lifespan due to a combination of preordained DNA impacts and environmental impacts.
A
True
3
Q
Human Growth is impacted by:
A
DNA, Parental Influence, Spirituality, Social Mores, Culture, Psychological and Physical Development, Community
4
Q
Human Development is becoming something new as a person while also…
A
Remaining somewhat the same
5
Q
How does ACA Code of Ethics relate to human growth and development?
A
Counselors are dedicated to the promotion of human growth and development across the lifespan, engage in practices that are developmentally appropriate in nature, and act as advocates against any barrier that limits human development. (ACA Preamble, A.2.c.)
6
Q
A full understanding of human development helps the counselor:
A
determine norms as well as instances of unhealthy patterns
7
Q
Three elements that influence how clients lives are progressing at any specific time:
A
Individual experiences, maturation, and cultural impacts
8
Q
Counselors should have a professional knowledge of the nature of human development across the lifespan, along with:
A
An understanding of potential normative and exceptional challenges that clients might face, as well as the research and theory on human development
9
Q
Counselors should know the following 4 things about a client as it relates to their development:
A
1) How the client understands their environment; 2) How learning experiences help them cope with adversity; 3) How the client develops resilience; 4) How all of this is impacted by identities and psychological factors
10
Q
The Eleven Developmental Stages across the Lifespan that appear to be relatively unique, along with their associated ages
A
1) Conception (0)
2) Infancy (0-2yo)
3) Toddler (2-3yo)
4) Early Childhood (4-6yo)
5) Middle Childhood (7-12yo)
6) Early Adolescence (13-18yo)
7) Late Adolescence (19-25yo)
8) Early Adulthood (26-35yo)
9) Middle Adulthood (36-50yo)
10) Late Adulthood (51-75yo)
11) Elderhood (70+yo)
11
Q
Development involves (1)_________, (2)_________, and (3)__________ across many domains and across many different chronological periods of development, all of which is impacted by (4)__________, and (5)_________.
A
- Growth
- Regression
- Change
- Culture
- Context
12
Q
Ecological Systems Theory takes into consideration the influences of:
A
the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
13
Q
A pioneer of integrative medicine, and considered the founder of the biopsychosocial approach to human development:
A
George Engels (1980)
14
Q
Normative growth & development (as well as pathology) is influenced by age-graded:
A
Age-graded social factors, biological factors, and non-normative factors
15
Q
Lawrence Kohlberg was a:
A
Developmental Psychologist
16
Q
Lawrence Kohlberg believed therapy was a formative part of (1)____________________________________. Kohlberg offered progressivism which encourages (2)____________________________________.
A
1) individual and social development; 2) natural development in relation to society
17
Q
Some people are more susceptible to:
A
Factors that interfere with their healthy development
18
Q
Four Goals of Counselors in the Field of Human Development:
A
1) Describe changes that occur across a lifespan
2) Explain these changes & understand divergence
3) Predict developmental changes
4) Intervene in the course of events to support development
19
Q
Crawling is a prime example of:
A
Multidimensional and multidirectional development
20
Q
8 Main Theories of Human Development
A
1) Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
2) Psychoanalytic Theory
3) Ecological Systems Theory
4) Cognitive Development
5) Biopsychosocial
6) Maturist Theory
7) Behaviorism
8) Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory
21
Q
Primary purpose of the different theories of Human Development are to ask the question:
A
What shapes who we will become?
22
Q
Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924) was a psychologist and educator who put forth what theory of human development?
A
Maturationist Theory
23
Q
Maturationist Theory…
A
- Put forth by Granville Stanley Hall
- Everyone needs to crawl before learning to walk (physical development leads to all other forms of development)
- Laid foundations for modern theories of development
- Relies on evolution as base understanding
- Genetics leading to recapitulation of evolution steps throughout one’s life
24
Q
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development thinks of development as what in nature?
A
Epigenetic: biological & environmental impacts both factoring into development.
25
8 Stages of Development from Erik Erikson
Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1.5yo)
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3yo)
Initiative vs. Guilt (4-6yo)
Industry vs. Inferiority (7-12yo)
Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18yo)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-40yo)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (41-65yo)
Integrity vs. Despair (65+yo)
26
The stages of psychosocial development for ages 41-65yo and 1-3yo (according to Erikson) are associated with what crises?
Generativity vs. Stagnation (41-65yo)
and
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3yo)
27
Integrity vs. Despair is associated with which ages in Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development?
65 years plus
28
Psychoanalytic Theory was first started by:
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
29
According to Psychoanalytic Theories, Psychology is what?
A reflection of instinctual biological drives
30
According to Sigmund Freud, over the course of a human's lifespan, the drive for pleasure goes through what five stages?
Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent, and Genital.
31
According to Sigmund Freud, what aspect of childhood development shapes one's lifestyle later in life?
Conflict resolution between desire for pleasure and responsibilities in the first 6 years of life
32
The Anal Stage in Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development occurs between what ages and has what characteristics?
Ages 1-3. Shift from oral stimulation to controlling bladder and bowel movements. Toilet training is a primary issue for children and parents. Too much pressure can lead to excessive need for order and cleanliness later in life, or conversely too little can lead to destructive/messy characteristics later in life.
33
What Psychosexual stage (and corresponding ages) is represented by the development of values and characteristics of the same-sex parent?
The Phallic Stage. Ages 3-6.
34
Describe the Genital Stage in Freudian Philosophy.
Beginning at age 11 and ending at age 18, people develop a strong interest in the opposite sex, and the onset of puberty causes libido to become active. If successful development through the stages up until this point, the individual will become a well-balanced person.
35
What are the ages associated with each stage in the Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development?
0-1yo (Oral Stage)
1-3yo (Anal Stage)
3-6yo (Phallic Stage)
6-11yo (Latent Stage)
11-18yo (Genital Stage)
36
What happens during the Latent Stage of development? According to Freud...
Development of social skills, values, and relationships with peers and adults outside the family (6-11 years old)
37
What Stage of Psychosocial Development (According to Erikson) is defined by toilet training and the ability to have willpower as well as self-control?
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years old)
38
What are the characteristics of the Industry vs. Inferiority Stage of Psychosocial Development?
School Age individuals (7-12 years old) begin to develop competence to perform skills. An inability to discover one's strengths leads to inferiority. Positive outcomes result in skill-building and industriousness.
39
What is the Stage of Psychosocial Development that is dominated by developing relationships with friends, family, and partners? The ability of an individual to find emotional connection and sexual maturity is the primary focus during this time, resulting in either healthy affiliation or exclusivity.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-40 years old)
40
Name Two primary theorists involved with the creation of Behaviorism Theory.
John B. Watson (1878-1985) and B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
41
What is the primary belief of Behaviorism Theory?
That any behavior or human trait can be created in an entirely controlled environment. Behaviorism posits that development is entirely based on the environment one is raised in.
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my specified world to bring them up in and I will guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any specialist i might select." - J.B. Watson, 1998
42
What is the main drawback to Behaviorism Theory?
Behaviorism only provides a partial account of what leads to human development and behavior. It relies on an incomplete understanding to state that a complex system of Rewards and Punishments determine a life path while leaving out other important factors that could (or do) impact human development.
43
Which theorist posited that Rewards and Punishments are the primary drivers of human development?
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), Behaviorism Theory
44
Who first presented Social Learning Theory?
Albert Bandura
45
What is the main theoretical framework of Social Learning Theory?
That people develop by observing others, imitating, and modeling those behaviors.
46
Why is Social Learning Theory called "The Bridge" Theory?
Because it "bridges" traditional learning theory like Behaviorism and cognitive theories because it puts forth an understanding of mental awareness of one's environment as the formative element of human development.
47
What is an example of Social Learning Theory that is presented in the textbook?
If a child is raised in an alcoholic household and sees parents fighting and then making up, they may repeat those patterns as an adult because "that's all I know about how to love."
48
What are the four mediational processes that Bandura states control whether or not a behavior will be repeated by an individual?
Attention: This is the extent to which we are exposed to/notice the behavior. We observe many behaviors daily, many of which do not seize our attention.
Retention: The behavior may be noticed but is not always remembered.
Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. We are limited by our physical/cognitive abilities to imitate every behavior.
Motivation: Observer will consider the drive to perform the behavior and the subsequent rewards and punishments that result from imitation of a behavior.
49
Who are two main theorists of Cognitive Theory?
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934, died at 37 from Tuberculosis)
50
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development uses what term first and foremost to discuss the cognitive development of human beings?
Schema.
51
What are the four stages of human development put forth by Piaget?
Sensorimeter Stage (Birth to 18 to 24 months)
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years old)
Formal Operational Stage (11+ years old)
52
According to Jean Piaget, what four constructs lead people to adapt to their environments?
Schema, Assimilation, Accommodation, and then Equilibrium. Piaget put forth the idea that when a person comes across something new in their lives, they attempt to "force" the evidence into an existing schema (assimilation). If it doesn't fit that "schema," it will cause a feeling of disequilibrium, at which point the individual will need to create a new schema in order to make sense of the new evidence, and this schema will be created and added to the original. This leads the individual to the final stage of Equilibrium, or of better understanding stimuli in their environment - at least until the next stimuli that doesn't "fit."
53
What are the characteristics of the Preoperational Stage as defined by Piaget?
Starting at 2 years old and continuing to 7 years old, the child is no longer tied to sensorimotor input and begins to use representational and conceptual frameworks. Not yet able to logic or think outside themselves, the child is egocentric but is starting to understand the concepts of the world like Conservation (objects inside another do not change in number even if the shape of the container changes).
54
Which stage of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development is defined by abstract thinking and reasoning, with the child able to contemplate the future and test hypotheses systematically.
The Formal Operational Stage (Ages 11+)
55
What is the central component to Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory?
Children are cultural creatures. They pursue the development of skills that are culturally based and help them to succeed within their context. Disagreed with Piaget's assessment that children invariably progressed from one stage to another, instead stating that cultural symbols and words are used to train and mold children to only develop functions that will serve the society they are in.
56
According to Vygotsky, children learn cultural tools and skills from whom?
Their parents, teachers, or more experienced peers.
57
What is the primary understanding of Biopsychosocial Theory?
That human development happens through the integration and reciprocal effects of biological, psychological, and social systems.
58
When it comes to Biopsychosocial Theory, bodily processes, personality dispositions, and life events are examples of what?
Internal and External Variables.
59
Who put forth an understanding of human development as occurring within the complex interactions between the microsystem, the mesosystem, and the exosystem?
Urie Bronfenbrenner's (1917-2005) Ecological Systems Theory.
60
What is an example of the microsystem?
The individuals that are involved in a child's life on a daily basis: friends at school, parental relationships, and teachers directly involved in raising the child.
61
What is the Chronosystem?
Unique environmental and life events that occur over the course of the lifespan. Divorce is an example of the Chronosystem impacting a child's development.
62
What system, according to Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory, is comprised of national legislation that impact individual freedom, the economy, and international conflict?
The Macrosystem.
63
What is the Exosystem?
the larger factors that could impact a child's development, but that aren't directly in touch with the child. For example, a parent's boss is always a POS so the parent comes home every day stressed and takes it out on the child.
64
According to Miller (2011), what is a developmental theory?
A systematic statement of general principles that provides a coherent framework for understanding how and why people change over time concerning their behaviors, attitudes, thoughts, philosophies, and physical/psychological capabilities.
65
How are developmental theories created?
Through the scientific method and the development of theories based on human subjects.
66
What are the two primary forms of research?
Qualitative and Quantitative
67
What are the primary differences between Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research?
The type of data collected. Qualitative Research uses narrative methods to elucidate patterns, and Quantitative Research uses scales and objective observational recordings to elucidate patterns.
68
What are two different settings for making scientific observations?
In the real world and in the lab.
69
What is a potential benefit and what is a potential drawback from lab-based studies?
Researcher can control the environment and potentially limit extraneous factors, but the artificial reality of the lab may result in data that is ungeneralizable because of a lack of participant representation or false conditions.
70
What is the Hawthorne Effect?
People change their behavior when they know they are being observed.
71
What are two metrics that any human development study should have?
Validity and Reliability.
72
What is a strength and a weakness of using surveys for human research?
Surveys are an inexpensive way to get a large sample size. Standardized questions don't necessarily capture the unique experiences of each participant.
73
What are four different Research Designs?
Laboratory Research, The Field Experiment, The Natural Experiment, Lifespan Study, Cross-Sectional Study, and a Longitudinal Study.
74
What is a confounding variable in Research Design?
anything other than what is attempting to be studied that might in fact be causing a given result.
75
What is an independent variable in Research Design?
The controllable variable researchers are attempting to study.
76
What are two strengths and two weaknesses of Laboratory Research?
Experiments are the only means by which true cause and effect can be established, by systematically introducing changes and observing consequences. They are controllable, can be replicated, and can be analyzed for statistical significance. Lab Research is notorious for having biased and non-representative sampling. True human experience cannot be understood in a fabricated model. Also the Hawthorne Effect.
77
What is a Lifespan Study?
Any study that attempts to research the effects of time and developmental stages across a lifespan. Two examples are cross-sectional studies (sampling from different age groups at the same time) and longitudinal studies (following one group of people throughout their lives).
78
What type of research design is defined by the subject not being aware of the researcher? Either by use of one-way mirrors or observing at a distance, without influencing any of the conditions.
A Natural Experiment.
79
What is a Field Experiment?
When researchers set up conditions in public to determine how unknowing participants will react to those conditions.
80
What are the three main principles of the Belmont Report (1978)
1) Respect for Persons: treat individuals as autonomous and protect those who have diminished autonomy
2) Beneficence: Do unto others as you would want them to do unto you
3) Justice: Distribute the risks and potential benefits of research equally
81
When was the National Research Act passed?
1974
82
Which pivotal protection of Human Research Participants was created in 1947? What was the primary focus of it?
The Nuremburg Code and Voluntary Consent.
83
What was an unethical and racist study that occurred prior to the National Research Act of 1972?
San Antonio contraception study (1970s), Tuskegee syphilis study (1932-1972)
84
What are 5 research-related guidelines in the ACA Code of Ethics? (According to the textbook).
1) Researchers should have a multicultural awareness, must consult the IRB, use precaution to avoid injury to participants, and have only minimal interference in the lives of participants.
2) Participants have right to informed consent, counselors may not participate in research that involves deception.
3) Nonprofessional relationships with participants are not allowed.
4) Report accurate results even if unfavorable, and protect the identity of participants.
5) Must recognize work of other contributors to the research (even graduate students). No duplicate submissions to journals and no plagarization
85
True or False: Over the past two decades, counselor interest in research has increased.
False, it has decreased.
86
Nelson and Southern (2008) identify what four areas to determine how scholarly a counselor is on the job?
1) Discovery, where a counselor researches and investigates
2) Integration, where a counselor takes isolated concepts and places them in broader context, giving new meaning to a classic concept
3) Application, where a counselor applies knowledge and scholarship to community or individual needs
4) Teaching with Educators in Academia
87
What are the lengths of each Trimester?
First Trimester (0-13 weeks)
Second Trimester (14-27 weeks)
Third Trimester (28+ weeks)
88
When do the most dramatic stages of fetal development occur?
Between 0 and 8 weeks, but includes critical development every step of the way through being full-term.
89
During which trimester does the fetus develop in a cephalocaudal direction?
First Trimester, growing from head to toe with fastest development towards the head.
90
True or False: During the first trimester, the fetus is able to suck its thumb.
False. Not until the Second Trimester is the fetus able to suck its thumb along with being able to swallow, hear, and pass urine.
91
At what age of fetal development does blood begin to pump and reach 150 beats/minute?
8 weeks of fetal development.
92
How large is a fetus at 8 weeks of age?
As large as a blueberry
93
At what age is a fetus as large as a Coconut?
36 weeks
94
What is the name of the waxy coating and the fine hair that covers the skin of a fetus during the Second Trimester?
Vernix (waxy coating) and Lanugo (fine hair)
95
At what point does the fetus start to move, kick, sleep, and wake?
At 20 weeks (The Second Trimester)
96
At what point has the amniotic fluid reached its maximum amount?
36 weeks
97
What are some characteristics of fetal development at 28 weeks?
Skin turning from translucent to pink as blood vessels form and fill with blood. Baby is the size of a cucumber, approximately 2.5 pounds, and can now open its eyes to blink as well as cough, as well as more advanced sucking.
98
At what fetal stage does a baby start to inhale and exhale, preparing for its first breath?
At 40 weeks, when the baby is the size of a watermelon.
99
Which trimester is characterized by the most pronounced weight gain?
Third Trimester
100
At what week of fetal development do the sex organs of a baby start to develop?
7 weeks
101
At what point is a fetus the size of the palm of a hand, with half of its size coming from its head alone.
18 weeks
102
What are some components of fetal development at 4 weeks?
The amniotic and yolk sacs have started to form. The embryo has three distinct layers of cells: the inner layer (endoderm) that will form the digestive system; the middle layer (mesoderm) that will form the heart, sex organs, muscles, bones, and kidneys; and the outer layer (ectoderm) that will form organs, tissues, hair, skin, and the nervous system.
103
When do the eyes begin to develop in a fetus? And when are they fully developed?
4.5 weeks to full term
104
When does the heart begin to develop in a fetus? And when is it fully developed?
3.5 weeks to 9 weeks fully formed (with full functional maturity not occurring until later in the pregnancy)
105
What major body system begins developing at 3.5 weeks of fetal development and continues developing through delivery?
The Central Nervous System
106
What is the first human organ to begin development after conception?
The brain at 18 days after fertilization.
107
What are the initial stages of brain development in utero?
Brain begins as a layer of cells on the Neural Plate, which folds to form the neural tube. The wall of the tube then thickens and forms the brain and spinal cord. During the fourth week, the neural tube begins to form the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.
108
What are some neurological defects that can occur during the earliest stages of cognitive development in utero? and how do they occur?
Spina Bifida and Anencephaly, which occur when the neural plate doesn't properly fold into the neural tube by the fourth week of fetal development.
109
After development of the neural tube and the beginning construction of the brain in utero, The Hindbrain divides into the __________________ and the _______________.
Myelencephalon and Metencephalon
110
What does the Myelencephalon form into? What about the Metencephalon?
The Medulla Oblongata; The Pons & Cerebellum.
Medulla Oblongata regulates respiration and heartbeat.
Pons connects cerebral cortex with the medulla oblongata and serves as a communications center between brain hemispheres. The cerebellum controls motor movement coordination including balance and muscle tone.
111
What 4th week fetal cognitive structure ends up forming the Inferior and Superior Colliculi, the tegmentum, and the substantia nigra?
The Midbrain
112
What important functions does the Substantia Nigra control?
Voluntary Movement, Dopamine Production, and Mood Regulation
113
What brain systems are created from the Forebrain after the 4th week of cognitive development?
Divides into the Diencephalon and Telencephalon. Diencephalon forms thalmus and hypothalmus (which control hunger, thirst, temperature, sleep, emotions, pineal body that releases melotonin). Telencephalon develops into the Rhinencephalon (olfactory) and the neocortex.
114
What fetal cognitive structure comes to form the majority of the mass of the brain?
The Neocortex
115
What are the grooves and convolutions of the brain called?
Sulci (Grooves) and Gyri (Convolutions)
116
In which trimester does the brain of a fetus undergo a tremendous growth spurt?
The third trimester (especially between weeks 28 and 30 of fetal development)
117
What is the function of the spinal cord?
Control nerve tissue, sensory and motor information, and coordination reflexes.
118
True or False: Prenatal researchers believe there isn't really a connection between a pregnant person's emotions and how the baby feels in the womb.
False, researchers believe there is evidence to show a connection between the pregnant person's emotions and those of the unborn baby.
119
What are some potential results of being anxious or depressed during pregnancy? According to Betts, Williams, Najman & Alati, 2015.
Children can later develop disorders such as anxiety, ADHD, and depression.
120
What are four risks that can impact fetal development?
Nutrition, Stress, Teratogens, and Domestic Violence
121
What are teratogens?
Any disease, drug, or environmental chemical that can harm a developing fetus (including some medications and infections). Smoking, drinking, or using drugs while pregnant can severely impact fetal development.
122
What is one of the greatest risks to fetal development in the third trimester?
Teratogens. And unfortunately the first trimester is also when someone is unlikely to know that they are pregnant.
123
What are some dangers of Domestic Violence to prenatal development?
Miscarriage, Vaginal Bleeding, Low Birth Weight, Fetal Injury.
124
How can counselors support clients during pregnancy?
Help process feelings and reduce overall stress. Education of the client about the developmental stages, potential proactive steps to support prenatal development as well as risks to the fetus. Sometimes counselors are the first provider a client will see after becoming pregnant. Encouraging the client to make an appointment with their PCP or finding some maternal health care can make a big difference. Some parents are suspect of the medical system, talking through that can help. Assist with the birth plan, processing options if it doesn't go "according to plan."
125
According to the CDC, what percentage of women and what percentage of men will be victims of physical violence by an intimate partner?
1/5 (20%) of women, and 1/7 (14.5%) of men.
126
What percentage of women murdered globally occurred at the hands of an intimate male partner?
38%
127
According to a meta-analysis by Hawcroft and colleagues (2019), what percentage of women in Arab countries have experienced intimate partner violence?
70%
128
What is the difference between fetal undernutrition and fetal malnutrition?
Undernutrition means that the necessary nutrients are available for the fetus in the parent's diet, just not enough. Malnutrition is when one or more essential nutrients for fetal development is missing or in the wrong proportion.
129
Malnutrition is a global problem that can lead to what in young children?
behavioral abnormalities, altered cognitive functioning, and disturbances in learning and memory.
130
What is the process of stress impacting fetal development?
Stress hormones that cross the placental barrier and into the fetus' bloodstream.
131
What are the long term impacts of fetal stress on children, in utero and as young children?
Being used to feeling chemically stressed, potential for more emotional disturbances and gastrointestinal upsets. Long-term major emotional disturbances can lead to emotionally troubled children, spontaneous abortion, preeclampsia, preterm labor, reduced birth weight, and reduced head circumference.
132
What is the frontal lobe?
Lobe at the front of the skull that controls thought, speech, and problem-solving
133
What fully formed lobe in the brain controls fear, emotion, language, hearing, and portions of our memory?
Temporal Lobe
134
At what point in fetal development can the fetus share emotions with the parent?
At 6 Months
135
True or False: Domestic Violence often lessens during preganancy.
False, Domestic Violence can worsen during pregnancy
136
What's involved with a counselor "understanding the story" of a pregnancy?
Was it planned or unplanned? who are the biological parents? who is involved now during the pregnancy? Any complications? Any siblings already here? Fears or hopes? Feelings about self during pregnancy? Cultural considerations regarding the pregnancy? Financial considerations?
137
What are the five stages of grief that some parents may feel after losing a pregnancy?
Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Sadness/Regret, and Acceptance (Kubler-Ross 1969)
138
According to the APA (2019), what percentage of pregnant people have depressive symptoms?
14-23%
139
Children can express grief in different ways. What are some of those ways?
Impatience, Inattentiveness, Protectiveness, Regression, Separation Anxiety, Withdrawal
140
True or False: Grief can be cultural in how people express or don't express it.
True.
141
How long is breastfeeding recommended?
At least 6 months, up to 2 years
142
When can solid food be introduced for a baby?
After at least 6 months and the child has started to reach for it
143
How should new foods be introduced to an infant once they are ready for solid foods?
Introduce one new food at a time, followed by 2-3 days before the next food, monitor for allergies
144
What types of food should you be careful with feeding an infant?
Any small hard food that could be aspirated.
145
What is the purpose of immunizations?
To provide children immunity to common diseases that can be debilitating or fatal.
146
How far can newborns see?
8 inches in front of their face
147
True or False: Newborns see in black and white
True, full spectrum sight doesn't develop until 3 months of age
148
At what age do infants start "tracking" sounds and movement more generally? (Not just turning towards the sound of a parent's voice)
6 months old
149
What are the three reflexes that newborns are born with?
Moro Reflex: Startle, arms and neck movement
Rooting Reflex: Sucking, looking for breast milk
Grasp Reflex: Wrap fingers around anything that touches their palm
150
True or False: Taste and smell are developed in utero
True, newborns already have imprinted smells and tastes, based on foods that were consumed while they were in utero
151
What are the 9 Stages of learning how to walk within the first year after birth?
1) Hold up chest
2) Roll over
3) Sit with support
4) Sit without support
5) Crawl
6) Stand with support
7) Walk with lead
8) Stand without support
9) Walk without support
152
True or False: Fruit juice can provide essential nutrients for newborns and young infants.
False, there is no nutritional benefit to infants under 1 year old. And once introduced, fruit juice should in fact be limited.
153
What are methods parents can use to help infants develop large motor skills?
Provide activities with small steps or small stools for climbing.
154
What are ways that parents can cultivate the fine motor skills of children?
Provide a variety of different materials and sizes of toys or objects for the child to explore, grasp, and carry. Be careful to not have objects that are too small and could be aspirated by an infant.
155
Do young infants (age of 3 months) have any preference for what they are looking at?
Yes, infants prefer to look at faces, and can distinguish between faces.
156
What is one way to reduce stress in newborns and infants?
Physical touch and skin to skin contact. Murgatroyd et al. (2015) found that a parent's or caregiver's touch can reverse the effects of stress and protect at-risk infants (i.e. NICU babies). Babies who receive lots of skin to skin contact also tend to show less emotional negativity as they get older and develop fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression.
157
At what age will newborns turn towards familiar voices and sounds?
Within the first 4 months
158
At what age will a child use hands to feed and can use a sippy cup?
Between 8 and 12 months
159
At what age does cooing turn to babbling?
Around 5 months
160
When do infants start to practice language?
7-12 Months
161
What is the period of most rapid brain development in children?
Within the first 3 years of life. Synapses are overproduced in the cerebral cortex and then trimmed afterwards, with around half of the total produced synapses surviving.
162
True or False: Identity formation begins as infants.
True. Early experiences in childhood shape the development of skills and the ability to form friendships.
163
What is Emotional Development?
Ability for a child to recognize, express, and regulate emotions.
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What is Social Referencing?
The ability to understand the emotional cues of others and then use those cues to guide personal behavior.
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At what age do infants begin to use social referencing?
Researchers believe it begins around 7 months of age
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What are three types of child temperaments? And what can impact temperaments?
Easy, Difficult, and Slow To Warm. Activity level, biological rhythms, approach/withdrawal, mood, intensity of reaction, sensitivity, adaptability, distractability, and persistence.
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What is the most important factor in a child's future outcome, based on temperament?
How well the child's temperament fits with the caregiver's temperament. The viewpoint of the caregiver leads to differing responses to the child's needs and can either encourage or discourage parent-child bonding.
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What is a primary factor in a child's ability to self regulate as they age?
Whether the child is provided with empathetic support regarding emotions, or alternatively if the child is mistreated or neglected.
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What is the emotional bond between caregiver and child called?
Attachment.
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What are the four different types of attachment a child can have with their parent?
Insecurely attached-Disorganized Disoriented, Insecurely attached-Avoidant Attached, Insecurely attached-Anxious Resistant, and Securely Attached.
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Securely attached children tend to feel ______________________.
safe and protected by their caregiver(s). They tend to seek the caregiver after time of separation and go to the caregiver for comfort.
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Children identified as having a Disorganized Disoriented attachment appear as ___________________.
dazed and confused with the caregiver.
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True or False: Avoidant attached children see parent as available but they are biologically predisposed to not be able to express emotions with the parent.
False, avoidant attached children see parent as unavailable and proceed to suppress negative emotions and distress, avoiding the adult and instead preferring to play with objects over people.
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What is the relationship between anxious resistant attachment and children exploring their environment?
Anxious resistant attached children are fearful to explore and want to stay close to the caregiver.
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What role do counselors play when it comes to parental attachment in children?
Helping parents understand the critical role they play in their child's development can lead to different behaviors. Consider cultural understanding of infants and "spoiling," perceptions of the "goodness" or "badness" of a child, and what is the parent's perception of securely attached children? Even something as simple as educating parents that infants and very young children cannot intentionally misbehave can help to shift perspectives about parenting.
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What are some factors that parents should consider when choosing a daycare?
Physical condition of the building, good communication with caregivers, physical safety of play areas, nutrition of food served, discipline style, and a balance of educational opportunities with free play, student to child ratio, how often new materials or toys are introduced
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What are some factors that impact sleep patterns?
Routine, temperament, attachment, physiological states, environment, caregiver presence, and sleeping arrangements.
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What are the four stages of infant sleep?
Awake, active sleep, quiet sleep, and transitional sleep.
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Infant wakefulness can be impacted by needs such as ___________, _______________, and ________________.
Hunger, changing, or attachment issues
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What is a best practice for sleep management with young children?
Routine, Consistency, and Slowly extending response time to the requests of the child during sleeping hours to build child resilience while still being present in the case of emergencies.
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What are some traditional sleep management strategies for parents of young children?
Behavioral methods like: Extinction method, Ferber method, Immediate Response, and Self-Soothing
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What percentage of women and what percentage of men experience PPD (Postpartum Depression)?
10-15% of women and 10% of men (Garfield et al., 2014)
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What is the leading cause of maternal death after the first 42 postnatal days and up until 1 year postpartum?
Suicide. (Thornton et al., 2013)
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What are some common risk factors for PPD in rural women?
low socioeconomic status, being single, history of abuse, low social support, past psychiatric history, depression during pregnancy, and recent stressful events. Rural women in poorer countries have additional risk factors of: knowledge of infant care, struggles with in-laws, have an unemployed or uneducated husband, psychopathology of the husband, years of marriage, gender of the infant, having more than five children, or having two or more children under the age of 7.
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Beliefs about ___________ have been linked to parenting practices and child outcomes.
Discipline.
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What is Attachment Parenting?
A parenting philosophy that proponents believe establishes secure attachment and has better long-term outcomes for children. The philosophy promotes birth bonding, breastfeeding, baby wearing, co-sleeping, responding sensitively to a baby's cries, and positive discipline. Critics highlight the exhaustion levels of parents, potential overdependence of the child on the parent, and potential lack of healthy boundaries between parent and child.
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What is unmodified extinction when it comes to sleep modification for infants?
A belief that relies on Behaviorism, assuming that positively responding to a crying child creates a reward stimulation for crying, encouraging parents to not respond to the crying child in order to discourage the behavior.
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What are the characteristics of the "self-soothing" model of sleep behavior modification?
Child has set hours for bedtime and the parent does not respond during those times. The child is expected to self-soothe during those times. Recent studies have showed increase levels of toxic stress in the infant and is no longer encouraged.
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Extinction with parental presence is defined by __________________.
A non-reactive parent "sleeping" in proximity to the child.
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For toddlers, what form of connection is vital to development? And why?
Play. Allows for skill development and cognitive development simultaneously, without rigid expectations
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Toddlerhood is a time of establishing ___________________ and ________________.
Independence and boundaries.
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Which major physical development milestones should largely be complete by 3 years old?
Toilet Training, Balance, Motor function
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By the time a toddler reaches the age of 3, how much of the brain development has been completed?
80%
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Which of these four developmental milestones does NOT occur between 12 and 24 months of age? 1) Child is able to walk on Tiptoes, 2) Understands Facial Expressions, 3) Recognizes self in the mirror, and 4) Now has a body weight that is 3x birth weight
1) Walking on tiptoes (occurs after 24 months)
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Which of these four developmental milestones does NOT occur between 24 and 36 months of age? 1) Child questions the presence and absence of family members, 2) Can unbutton and unzip clothing, 3) Is crawling quickly, and 4) Starts to show pride in accomplishments
3) crawling quickly (occurs before 24 months)
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At what age is speech 25-50% intelligable?
Between 12 and 24 months of age
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At what age is speech 70% intelligable?
3 years old
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At what age can a child walk up and down stairs?
Between 12 and 24 months old
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When is hand dominance in children established?
Around 3 years old
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What are some common reasons for a child's temper tantrum? What is a best practice for parents when it comes to child tantrums?
Frustration at not being able to communicate what they want, or needs not being met like Hunger or Sleep. Best practice is to wait 10 seconds before jumping in to "problem-solve" in order to give the child an opportunity to self-regulate or communicate further, and to give a child other options other than "no."
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At what age should a child be able to run and play on child-appropriate playgrounds?
3 years old
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How many words (on average) does a 3 year old have in their vocabulary?
250 words on average
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At what age does the average young person start to develop concrete memories that they will carry with them throughout life?
3 years old
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What's one way that parents can reframe a young child "misbehaving?" And why might it benefit the parent child relationship to do so?
To reframe "misbehaving" as "children learning independence." In seeing a child as exploring and trying things, even if there are negative consequences, the parent can have more compassion for the "bumps" of the growth process. Best practice is to be clear and communicative with the child about expectations and boundaries, and support outlets where the child can explore without blame from the parent (ex: playing on a playground).
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When was the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act passed? How does it define child abuse?
In 2016, defining abuse as any act or failure to act that results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation.
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What is the definition of physical abuse?
Non-accidental physical harm resulting in bruises up to fractures and death. (Does not require caregiver intentionality to be considered abuse).
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What is the definition of neglect?
A caregiver failing to provide for a child's basic needs: lack of food, shelter, supervision, medical care, access to education, emotional neglect, unsafe situations, proximity to substance abuse, or abandonment for long periods of time.
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Name some examples of Emotional or Psychological Abuse.
Constant criticism or verbally berating the child, verbal threats, rejection of the child, withholding love and support.
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Define sexual abuse of a child.
The employment, use, persuasion, inducement, enticement, or coercion of any child to engage in sexually explicit situations or actions. Includes fondling, penetration, indecent exposure, incest, and prostitution of a child.
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Why do counselors need to know the signs of abuse and neglect?
Because counselors are mandated reporters of child abuse if it is occurring. And because counselors are often the first line of identifying issues in survivors of abuse and providing interventions to best support the client.
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What are some of the potential developmental impacts to a child who has been abused?
A multitude of emotional and behavioral struggles that can include: depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, substance abuse, eating disorders, and the repetition of the cycle of abuse.
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What is a defining word of many toddler's speech?
"Why?" Children are trying to understand the world during this stage, but it can often be frustrating for parents. Counseling can be a space for parents to process their feelings about parenting.
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At what age will children start to engage in imitative play?
At 12 months or one years
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When do children start to parallel play with others? What is one potential challenge during this time?
3 years old, parallel play means playing alongside others. During this time, children might struggle with sharing and seek to maintain ownership of what is "theirs."
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What are important ways counselors can support parents when it comes to potential development delays with their children?
Pregnancy counseling to minimize risk factors, encouraging hearing/vision/blood tests for children, discuss immunizations with parents, providing space for parents to process any developmental delays with their child, being aware of resources in the community that they can connect caregivers to
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What are some established risk factors for developmental disabilities in children?
family history, abuse and neglect, poor parental nutrition, prenatal injury or delivery complications, exposure to environmental toxins, substance abuse while child was in utero
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What is the prevalence of anxiety disorders in children? What percentage of that is separation anxiety?
7% total, 4% of which is attributed to separation anxiety
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At what point should separation anxiety in children lead to an assessment for anxiety more broadly?
after the age of 2, if there's no change in the level of separation anxiety, it could indicate an anxiety disorder more broadly
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What's one therapeutic model that has shown success for children with separation anxiety? (and is used for other forms of anxiety as well)
Exposure Therapy. Gradually increasing the time apart to increase child tolerance and also parent popping up randomly to ensure the belief that the parent will return and that the parent is "always nearby."
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What are some signs of potential anxiety in children?
excessive distress when apart from caregiver, nightmares, reluctance to go to school or other places, reluctance to sleep without caregiver, repeated physical complaints, and worry about losing the caregiver or that harm will come to them or the caregiver.
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What are some strategies for supporting children with anxiety?
Introducing a transitional object that travels with the child from home to school and back again. Talking openly about anxieties that the child has. Behavior Modification with positive reinforcement for small accomplishments (instead of negative reinforcement), including hugs and praise. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and introduction of self-regulation techniques like listening to relaxing music, breathing exercises, coloring/art therapy, and focusing on positive feelings.
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What is stranger anxiety in children?
The fear of new people, or even fear of interacting with people who aren't the primary caregiver. In extreme cases, can result in a child hiding when someone comes to the house and refusing to go near other people. This can occur in children who have been abused or neglected.
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What are the most common disorders in children?
Anxiety disorders.
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When does gender identity development first start to occur in children?
Generally between 18 and 36 months of age, with some young people continuing to develop their gender until 6 years of age or beyond.
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What are the stages of gender development as outlined in the textbook?
Child Awareness (8-10 months), discovering genitals
Physical Difference (1-2 years), knows difference between genitals
Sense of Self (3 years), First identifies self by gender
Child Identity (4 years), Identifies self as "always" having that gender
Gender Stability (5 years), Understands aging as their gender
Gender Constancy (6-7 years), Understands their gender as independent of external factors
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How does social learning theory apply to children's genders?
Social Learning Theory means that Gender is learned from a child's peers, parents, and surrounding culture. Gender-based beliefs and actions are modeled after individuals around the child.
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What is Gender Schema Theory?
Introduced by Sandra Bem (1981), Gender Schema Theory outlines four different categories in which an individual's gender may fall: sex-typed, cross-sex typed, androgynous, and undifferentiated. Sex-typed individuals identify with the gender that was assigned to their genitals at birth. Cross-sex typed individuals identify with the gender assigned to different genitals than the ones they had at birth. Androgynous individuals identify with facets of multiple genders, independent of birth genitalia. Undifferentiated individuals do not show any alignment with any gender or sex-type.
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What's one way that parents can destigmatize sexual development and changing body parts?
By openly talking about bodies and development. By using the correct terms for genitalia, such as "penis" and "vulva."
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Masturbation is: 1) Abnormal before the age of 8 and should be discouraged by parents; 2) Normal once a child has begun puberty; 3) Normal in young children and should not be stigmatized; 4) Normal after the age of 6 and children should be encouraged to masturbate.
3) Normal in young children and should not be stigmatized. Parents reactions to childhood sexual development is the number 1 way that children are taught about sexuality. Child masturbation shouldn't be shamed, yet parents can encourage children to masturbate in private.
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How should a parent react if they walk in on children "playing doctor" together.
Determine the level of sexual activity that has occurred, ask about the motivations of the children and if they have each provided consent, and provide opportunities for children to learn about their bodies and consent independent of physical exploration with each other. "Normal" sexual behavior is, at times, being quite broad and at other times crosses over into unhealthy sexual behavior (much depends on the developmental stages, ages, and current emotions of the children).
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True or False: Toddlers are often curious about their own genitalia and the genitalia of others.
True, toddlers are curious about a lot of things, including genitalia.
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What is the difference between discipline and punishment?
Discipline is the process of teaching a child the values and boundaries of a family or society. Punishment is the use of force to cause physical or emotional harm as a consequence.
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What are the 6 principles of Effective Discipline?
1) Parental Warmth and Involvement, 2) Clear Communication and Expectations, 3) Induction and Explanation, 4) Rules/Boundaries/Demands, 5) Consistency and Consequences, 6) Context and Structure
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Which countries have not ratified the 2006 UN Directive to eliminate legalized violence against children?
Only the U.S.
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What is the general rule for how long a child should be in "time out?"
1 minute times the child's age.
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What are some effective strategies for using Time-Out with a child?
Prior to the initial time-out, role play what it will look like so that the child understands. Practice consistency with the child, directing the child to time-out immediately after the inappropriate behavior occurs, don't interact with the child during the time out - instead discussing the behavior with the child after the time out ends.
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What are some of the long-term effects of corporeal punishment?
Can cause disrupted social behavior, delayed cognitive development, poor quality of parent-child relationship, poorer moral internalization including parental values and rules, increased chance for mental health problems including depression, anxiety, suicidal ideation, and psychiatric disorders.
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What is the primary difference between abusive and non-abusive parents?
The frequency and intensity with which parents direct negative behavior towards their child.
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True or False: Different cultures have different beliefs about the use of physical discipline with children?
True, physical discipline varies greatly around the globe depending on culture. Scholars delineate between physical discipline and physical abuse, and encourage counselors to be mindful of cultural understandings of discipline when working with clients.
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What is a behavior chart?
A plan for a child to change one specific behavior, with consequences and rewards built in for compliance.
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How do children learn best?
Through one-on-one playful interactions with a loving and caring adult.
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What is the primary developmental task between ages 1 and 3?
Developing autonomy
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What are some components of a successful behavior chart?
An achievable positive goal, interesting and fun rewards for the child, building of small rewards into larger rewards, frequent enough rewards to keep the child's attention, consistency with monitoring and rewarding positive behavior in question, weaning off rewards over time.
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What are some interventions for child temper tantrums?
Keep in mind that tantrums are scary for the child, clarify rules and stay calm, get down on the child's eye level and communicate support for the child's emotions (does not mean bending to what the child wants), determine if there is any underlying need and how to best meet that need, creating an emotions chart for children to use during tantrums and also in general throughout the day.
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Name 3 best practices for dealing with a toddler biting another toddler.
Stop the action, separate the two children, try to not overreact.
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What is a primary reason for a toddler biting another toddler?
An attempt to communicate in some way, and there's almost certainly an underlying reason.
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How should parents determine the best discipline or intervention methods for their children?
By getting to know their children and trying things to see what works and what doesn't.
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What percentage of toddlers struggle with social development?
17%
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What is a potential indicator of a toddler struggling with social development?
Not pointing and talking.
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Why does child maltreatment most often begin during toddlerhood?
Because toddlers begin to assert independence, which can be difficult for parents to understand and accept.
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How many hours of sleep do toddlers generally need?
Between 12-14 hours of sleep per 24-hour period.
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How much TV should children under 2 years old watch? According to the American Academy of Pediatrics.
None (with the exception of video chatting). Studies suggest that even background television exposure harms child language development.
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What percentage of children have used a mobile device by the age of 1?
over 92% (Hill, 2016)
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If toddlers will be watching TV, what is a best practice for watching TV?
Parents should be present to encourage conversation and child language development.
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What is a Best Practice for when parents are busy with chores or necessary tasks around the house?
Encourage the child to have free play in a secure area where they will likely not hurt themselves.
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What are two tried-and-true ways for parents to encourage healthy behaviors in children?
Model the desired behavior in themselves, and clear communication about the expectations for the desired behavior.
254
At what age do circadian rhythms develop?
At 6 weeks of age.
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At what age is a child's regular sleep schedule established?
3-6 months old.
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How much of childhood, as a percentage, is spent sleeping?
40%
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At 18 months of age, how long and how often should children nap?
Once per day for 1-3 hours.
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How can parents help children establish consistent sleep schedules?
Clear communication and consistent maintenance.
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What is a potential benefit of a bedtime routine?
Reduce stress around bedtime and queue child's internal rhythms that it is time to sleep.
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What are two potential sources of sleep disruption for children?
Developmental Stage, Sleep Anxiety, parental/sibling presence or lack of presence, Light, Stimuli in the room like a TV, Noise, Environmental Factors
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What is one benefit of counselors using play therapy with toddlers?
It communicates a lot about the child, including social skills, ability to share, ability to identify emotions and self-regulate, demeanor, etc.
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What are some other methods for counselors to evaluate physical, cognitive, and developmental skills?
Singing to assess verbal & language skills, dancing and listening music to determine physical development and auditory ability.
256
What developmental skills does a child need to have before completing toilet training?
The ability to put on and take off clothes and underwear. Child needs to be able to physically control their bowels first.
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What are some examples of what parents SHOULDN'T do when children have accidents during toilet training?
Shame the child, use words such as "gross" or "dirty," blame the child or verbally berate the child for not going in the toilet.
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What are some positive ways that parents can encourage toilet training?
Using a sibling's experience, or a doll, to demonstrate going to the bathroom on the toilet. Provide praise when the child goes to the bathroom on the toilet.
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Mathieson and Banerjee (2010) found that peer play between the ages of 2 and 3 is _____________________________.
Critical for children to develop social skills.
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What is one way that parents can encourage social skills in a child?
Feeding, including communication about the food, encourages the child to interact with the parent. Dress-up and play is another way for children to develop social skills. Discussions of "how to communicate" such as an expectation to say please when asking for something can also contribute to back and forth between parent and child, ultimately increasing social skills.
258
True or False: The social skills that children develop as toddlers will influence how they will interact with peers and adults later in life.
True, social development begins as toddlers.
258
According to Piaget, what is symbolic thought and when does it develop?
Symbolic thought is the ability to represent concrete objects, actions and events. Example: a child playing and using a broom to represent a horse. It develops during the preoperational stage (ages 2-7).
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What are examples of fine motor skills and large motor skills that children continue to develop between the ages of 3 and 6?
Large Motor Skills during this time: Climbing, Running and Kicking a Ball
Fine Motor Skills during this time: Using a writing utensil, Buttoning up a shirt, Snapping a snap
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What are two examples of the tremendous neurological development that is occurring in children between the ages of 3 and 6?
Hand-eye coordination, Language development, and Problem-Solving ability.
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Why is "how do you think that made him feel?" not a useful question for children during the preoperational stage of cognitive development?
Understanding is still egocentric and problem-solving is illogical. While the child may be able to answer the question, it is unlikely that the child is able to internalize the "how" or "why" of harm to someone else.
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According to Vygotsky (1978), what is the zone of proximal development?
Refers to the "zone" between what a child can do independently and what a child can do with support from an adult.
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Define "Scaffolding."
An Educational Model where the caregiver or teacher determines what a child's baseline knowledge and abilities are, and then builds outwards from there, providing challenges just beyond the child's current abilities. Teachers and Parents provide support at the relevant level and then withdraw support as the child's competence increases. Adjusting which knowledge and skills are taught over time helps the child to build competence.
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___________ and __________ are very important for young children as they develop.
Structure and Routine.
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Do 3 year olds, on average, have good short-term memory, long-term memory, or both?
Good short-term memory. Toddlers often struggle with long-term memory until they reach 4 or 5.
259
What does it mean for a child to have a generalized and egocentric view of the world?
That children believe the patterns in their life are true across the board. For example, if the child has a gentle dog at home, they assume all dogs will be gentle. They generalize based on their own lived experience, rather than understanding different experiences or realities in different contexts.
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While largely incapable of long-term memory, what are some significant events that children might remember from the ages of 3-5?
Birthdays, Vacations, Arrival of a new person into their life, etc. Anything that differed substantially from the norm.
259
According to Piaget (1952), what is Morality of Constraint?
When children believe that morality is absolute, with people and things either entirely "good" or "bad."
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Describe Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development?
Three stages that proceed hierarchically.
Preconventional Stage: Preschool children start moral development here, understanding rules as fixed and absolute. Children believe obeying rules is important in order to avoid punishment. Moral Decisions are based on potential rewards.
Conventional Stage: Being moral means being a good person in your own eyes as well as the eyes of others. What the majority thinks is deemed "right." Being good means doing one's duty and respecting authority.
Postconventional: Individuals can hold different opinions and what is "right" might not be what the majority believe. Moral decisions are based on inner conscience and may not line up with society's laws.
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Why are preschoolers particularly vulnerable to abuse?
Because they look to adults and older peers as authority figures to be obeyed.
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What is one critique of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development?
Gilligan (1982) challenges Kohlber's model based on her feminist findings. Gilligan posits that female moral decision-making is concerned less with "justice" and "right vs wrong" and more with relationship preservation / overall well-being.
260
What is a child's "Self-Concept?"
How a child views themselves. This develops rapidly during the preschool years as a child takes initiative, experiences challenges, and succeeds.
260
How can caregivers provide opportunities for children to develop a positive self-concept?
By providing activities that are a bit challenging but the child can still successfully accomplish. By engaging the child in conversations where the child can reflect on personal details about themselves. By providing specific positive feedback to the child about completed tasks.
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What are some ways that caregivers and counselors can promote self-control and self-regulation in children?
Model the emotional behaviors themselves, encourage to express their emotions openly, provide attention when the child is behaving appropriately not just when the child is misbehaving, set clear limits for unacceptable behavior and provide correction in a clear and warm manner, establish caring relationships with children
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How does Piaget define "play?"
"happy display of known actions"
262
What are the noticeable elements of emotional development that occur during preschool?
Rapid emotional changes and struggles with emotional regulation.
262
What are ways that teachers, counselors, and caregivers can encourage healthy emotional development in children?
Depends on the age. For younger children, provide opportunities for physical expression of emotion, like jumping for joy and punching a beanbag when angry. As children age, introducing emotion wheels or other tools to help identify specific emotions and potential next-steps when feeling those emotions. Throughout childhood, caregivers and counselors should model emotional well-being and provide opportunities for children to express their emotions directly.
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At what age do children begin to separate emotions and actions?
At 5 years old
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What are the 7 developmental levels of social play?
Unoccupied behavior
Onlooker behavior
Solitary play
Parallel play
Associative play
Cooperative play
Sociodramatic play
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What are the implications of play for children who have disabilities?
As pretend and symbolic play increases, so does the overall language and emotional development of preschoolers who have disabilities.
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True or False: Solitary play is a concern, and shows that children are unable to play with others.
False, solitary play does not necessarily mean that a child is unable to play with others. In fact, it can be a great time for self-regulation and evidence shows that children have decreased stress levels when engaging in solitary play.
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What are some ways that counselors can bring play into therapy?
Drawing the days activities, playing games, using music/dance/art or even sports to engage with the client through play.
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True or False: Play therapy can be especially triggering for children who have survived abuse, and should be avoided.
False, children who are survivors of abuse can use different forms of play to express what occurred, understand healthy normal interactions, and process trauma.
263
Define Child Resilience.
Resilience is the ability of a child to adapt when confronted with adversity, tragedy, significant stressors, or trauma. There are protective factors that can increase resilience, and risk factors that can decrease resilience.
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What is NAEYC?
National Association for the Education of Young Children
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What are signs or symptoms of a child who is less resilient to adversity? Or that their resilience has been exceeded?
conflict with peers, personality regression, withdrawal, decrease in academic performance, disinterest in school.
264
Name three possible signs or symptoms of childhood trauma?
Hygienic digression, self-harm, weight fluctuation, and extreme anger or frustration.
264
Name 3 potential risks to childhood development that are out of the control of the child.
Abuse, parental alcoholism, natural disasters, extreme poverty, divorce, and death of a loved one
265
Name 3 protective factors that can increase child resilience.
Good problem-solving and social skills, positive family experiences, ability to self-regulate, strong peer connections, positive future expectations, high self-esteem, authoritative (involved) parenting, positive role models outside of the family unit, strong spiritual community, and effective schooling
265
According to Alvord and Grados (2005), what are the six factors that impact Child Resilience?
1) Proactive orientation, 2) Self-regulation, 3) Proactive parenting, 4) Connections and attachments, 5) School achievement and involvement, and 6) Community.
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What is the counselor's role in developing Child Resilience?
Use a risk factor and protective factor analysis to determine the likelihood that a child will have strong or weak resilience, and then determine possible interventions from there.
265
Children who struggle developing social skills have higher likelihoods of developing what later in life?
Higher likelihood of developing more significant clinical disorders as children/young adults.
265
What is ASD?
Autism Spectrum Disorder, individuals with ASD relate socially with others in different ways, sometimes preferring solitary repetitive activities.
266
What is ADHD?
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Children with ADHD may be quite social but have challenges tempering their impulsivity, temper outbursts, and bossiness.
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What is ODD?
Oppositional Defiant Disorder. Can look similar to children who simply misbehave, but children with ODD refuse to follow adults' requests, being easily annoyed, constantly arguing, blaming others for their mistakes, seeking revenge, and deliberately annoying others.
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What is CD?
Conduct Disorder. Children with CD have great difficulty following rules and behaving in a socially acceptable manner. They typically display behaviors such as aggression towards people and animals, destruction of property, lying, stealing, and serious rules violations.
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What are some factors that can lead to CD?
Conduct Disorder can stem from brain damage, child abuse or neglect, genetic vulnerability, school failure, and traumatic life experiences. Many children with CD likely have co-existing conditions such as mood disorders, PTSD, ADHD, and learning problems. Early intervention and comprehensive therapy is necessary or else a child with CD will likely continue having problems.
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What is Positive Behavioral Support?
PBS uses Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) and ongoing monitoring to eliminate challenging behaviors and replace them with positive social skills. It is one model of behavioral intervention along with the Early Screening Project and skill training programs based on Cognitive Behavioral Therapy.
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What are some benefits of technology access for children between the ages of 3 and 6?
Preparation for future computer skills, improved spatial and logical understanding, improved self-esteem and self-confidence, and potential improvements to language comprehension.
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What are some cons of technology access for children between the ages of 3 and 6?
Decrease in active playing with others, possible dependency cycles. Time management is critical to ensure child is still having an interactive day.
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Which organization has provided clear guidelines on the use of technology in preschools?
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), encouraging the use of technology when it helps facilitate creative uses and hands-on experiences.
270
True or False: All preschoolers will display inappropriate behavior at times.
True, preschoolers are still developing the ability to express their emotions and needs.
270
What are the 6 steps of Behavior Management?
1) Talk about the problem behavior, 2) Explain the consequences, 3) Model the desired behavior, 4) Encourage and reinforce the child's behavior or implement consequences, 5) Be patient and consistent, and 6) Plan ahead
271
With an improved ability in motor skills, preschoolers become more _______________ and often seek ____________ to determine if they can do a task.
Independent and Risks.
271
Supporting resilience should be based on _________________ in early childhood and __________________ once a risk is presented.
Preventative measures, and Interventions
272
Between the ages of 3 and 6, children should become self-aware, develop self-concept, and understand _________________.
Emotional Expression.
272
True or False: Parent training programs have been the single most successful treatment approach for A) reducing behavioral problems in young children and B) increasing child social skills.
True!
273
Constant temper tantrums past the age of 4 years old is indicative of what?
Inconsistent Parenting or Potential Disorders.
273
What are the 10 main theoretical perspectives on human development? (As outlined by the chapter summary in the textbook)
Maturationist Theory: Granville Stanley Hall
Psychoanalytic Theory: Sigmund Freud
Psychosocial Theory: Erik Erikson
Behaviorism Theory: John B Watson
Operant Conditioning Theory: B.F. Skinner
Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura
Cognitive Development Theory: Jean Piaget
Sociocultural Theory: Lev Vygotsky
Biopsychosocial Theory: George L. Engel
Ecological Systems Theory: Urie Bronfenbrenner
273
The process of scientific inquiry is a very __________ and _____________ journey to develop new theories and reaffirm existing ones.
Rigorous and Systematic.
273
True or False: The ACA Code of Ethics has little to no guidance on how to conduct ethical research.
False, the ACA Code of Ethics contains clear guidance on how to conduct ethical research.
273
Human development is an interdisciplinary field dedicated to understanding human ________________ and _________ across the lifespan.
Constancy and Change.
274
According to the Periods of Human Development from the textbook, what ages and characteristics are associated with Middle Adulthood?
36-50 years old. Maintaining a satisfying career and shifting interest towards social responsibility and in assisting the next generation.
275
According to Chapter 1, what period of human development is defined by adjusting to post-work identity and retirement, as well as adjusting to challenges of changing health?
Late Adulthood (51 to 75 years old).
276
True or False: Elderhood is defined by Wong, Hall, and Hernandez as a time to focus on personal and economic independence, career development, and for many, selecting a mate.
False, it is defined as the time of life that comes after 75 years of age, with a focus on Reflection and Life Review, along with preparing for the end of life.
277
Is human development really as simple as nature versus nurture? Yes or No.
No, research tells us that it isn't that simple.
278
What period of human development is defined by someone being highly dependent as they develop language, symbolic thought, and social skills?
Infancy (Birth - 2 years old)
279
What are some characteristics of Early school aged children? As defined by table 1.2 in the textbook?
Increasing self-sufficiency, peer interest and interaction, and school-readiness skills. (Ages 4-6)
280
What period of human development is defined by rapid physical changes and the development of sexual characteristics, increased peer interaction and influence, cognitively moving into formal, abstract reasoning?
Early adolescence (13-18 years old)
281
During Middle Childhood, the rapid physical development from early childhood begins to slow. What is the average weight and height gain during Middle Childhood?
Gain 5-7 pounds per year and 2 inches/year on average
282
On average, what age do females begin to develop more fatty tissue while males add more muscle?
Age 11
283
Between what ages do adult speech patterns begin to develop?
10-12 years old
284
What are the ages of Middle Childhood, according to Wong et al.?
7-12 years old
285
What fundamental skills do individuals in Middle Childhood develop?
Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic
286
What are some physical and cognitive developmental components that occur between ages 8-10 in Middle Childhood?
- Can skip with alternating feet, ride a bike
- Understand law of conservation, use mnemonic strategies
- Self-identity increasingly important
- Preadolescence and beginning of hormonal changes
287
What are some common diet related issues for young people in Middle Childhood?
Early Onset Diabetes, High Blood Pressure, Calorie Restriction, Early Eating Disorders
288
During what developmental stage do individuals start to have expanded working memory?
Ages 7-12 (Middle Childhood)
289
How many pieces of information can a six-year old mentally hold at one time? And how many pieces at the end of Middle Childhood at 12 years old?
2 pieces increasing steadily to 7 pieces
290
What mental component is a good indicator of overall cognition?
Memory Capabilities
291
What is the Method of Rehearsal?
Children naturally begin to repeat and rehearse information, demonstrating increasing complexity and efficiency in how information is processed and retained
292
What are Metamemory and Metacognition?
Develops during middle childhood. Children become aware of the fact that they have a memory and aware that they have a cognitive process. In becoming self-aware of their own thinking, more options open up in terms of behavior monitoring and attention.
293
What are some external factors that can threaten mental and emotional development during Middle Childhood?
Social and Environmental Factors (ACEs)
Economic strife, for example, increases stress among children and adolescents, resulting in higher levels of depression and a lower sense of self-worth
294
What does ACE stand for? What are some examples?
Adverse Childhood Experiences.
- Losing parent through divorce, abandonment, or death
- Adults hit, punched, beat, or threatened you or others
- Experienced unwanted sexual contact
- Not enough to eat, no clean clothes, or no adult protection
- Adult alcoholism or substance abuse
295
What are some examples of "self-concept" in Middle Childhood?"
How a child perceives their self-desirability, self-efficacy, and social competence. Increasing concern with "social status" and friend groups. Positive self-worth is a protective factor against anxiety and social rejection
296
On average, what ages are associated with starting mental problem-solving skills, beginning of romantic or sexual feelings, and identity/conformity with peers increases?
Between 10 and 12 years old
297
How much does body weight increase during Middle Childhood?
Doubles from beginning to end
298
Middle Childhood is a period of continuous neurophysiologic changes. What are some of those changes?
Increases in Memory, Behavioral Monitoring, Reasoning Skills, Information Processing, Goal Setting, and Inhibition
299
Social Dominance in Middle Childhood can lead to what?
"likability" and "popularity"
300
What is an overt characteristic of Social Dominance and Popularity in Middle Childhood?
1) Higher intelligence,
2) Increased athleticism
3) Pretty privilege
301
What is a covert expression of Social Dominance and Popularity in Middle Childhood?
Bullying
302
What percentage of students in Middle Childhood are involved in bullying? Either as a victim or as a bully?
30%
303
What are some potential reasons for being a victim of bullying?
- Changing schools
- Making friends and group dynamics
- Puberty and body/mood changes
- School pressures
- Learning and course expectations
304
At what developmental stage does bullying peak?
In Middle School
305
What is the most dangerous potential response to bullying?
School Shootings. 87% of school shooters left behind evidence that they were victims of severe bullying
306
Does bullying often occur between different demographic groups? The same demographic groups? Or in intimate relationships?
Within the same demographic groups
307
How does bullying differ based on gender?
With bullying, males more likely to display physical aggression and females are more likely to use coercive strategies or gossip
308
What are the fives stages of friendship development in Children and Adolescents?
Stage 0 (3-6 years) Undifferentiated/Egocentric: imitation or enmeshment, physical fighting as likely negotiation strategy
Stage 1 (5-9 years) Differentiated/Subjective: sharing of expressive enthusiasm, one-way negotiation with orders and obedience
Stage 2 (8-12 years) Reciprocal/Self-reflective: sharing of similar perceptions with cooperative exchange and persuasion/deference as a negotiation strategy
Stage 3 (10-15 years) Mutual/Third-person: empathic sharing of beliefs and values with mutual compromise as negotiation strategy
Stage 4 (Late teen/adulthood) Intimate/In-depth/Societal: interdependent sharing of vulnerabilities and self with collaborative integration of relationship dynamics
309
During Middle Childhood, what is one social factor that leads to child resilience? One social factor that is a risk factor?
Protective Factor: Having multiple best friends
Risk Factor: Peer rejection and neglect
310
What are Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development?
Preconventional Morality
Stage 1 (Punishment and Obedience) Rules are followed to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 (Instrumental Purpose Orientation) Actions are based on self-interest and what can be gained from a situation.
Conventional Morality
Stage 3 ("Being Good"): Morality is about following rules and seeking approval from others.
Stage 4 (Law and Order): Rules are followed because they are necessary for maintaining social order and a sense of duty.
Postconventional Morality
Stage 5 (Social Contract): Individuals understand that laws are a social contract and can be changed to serve the greater good of society.
Stage 6 (Universal Ethics): Morality is based on abstract, self-chosen universal principles like justice, equality, and dignity.
311
What percentage of children have a diagnosable mental illness? What percentage of children who need mental health services report actually receiving them?
20% of children have a diagnosable mental illness. And only 30% of children who need mental health services ever report actually receiving them.
312
What are the stages of Piaget's Theory of Moral Development? And what are the associated ages?
Premoral: Little to no concept of morality (0-3 years old), no understanding of punishment.
Heteronomous Morality: Justice and rule are unchangeable, rules have consequences (4-10)
Autonomous Morality: Intentions matter alongside the rules and laws of a society, they are created by people and can change. Morality is more flexible and contextual. Any punishment should fit the crime (10+)
313
At what age are an individual's Emotional Skills considered to be 75% developed? (According to Wong et al.)
Between 6-8 years old (Confusion is now an emotion that can be understood and expressed, Logical thinking, Sense of right and wrong, Rapidly increasing vocabulary for self-expression, Follows rules for games and has emotions about winning and losing)
314
What are the four Parenting Styles (as outlined by Wong et al.)? What are the characteristics of each?
Authoritative: Developmentally appropriate demands. Affectionate and responsive to the needs of the child. Open and clear communication, with asserting control over the child's life through developmentally appropriate methods and only when needed.
Authoritarian: Highly demanding and a high level of control over the child's life. Little affection and closed one-way communication.
Permissive: Very few rules, regulations, or boundaries with their children. Few demands or expectations are made of the child and a noted absence of control over the child's life, letting the child do whatever they want.
Neglectful: Few demands of their children and parent is uninvolved in their child's life. Little control, low level of affection, and little to no communication.
315
What parenting style has been consistently shown to have the best outcomes for a child?
Authoritative. Authoritative parenting results in higher levels of self-regulation, lower externalizing behavior, and higher scores in adjustment/resilience/secure attachment.
316
For girls, what is a primary source of social anxiety in Middle Childhood?
Friendship quality. Poor quality of friendships can also lead to a negative feedback cycle where increasing social anxiety then impacts social development and ability to form positive relationships.
317
What are some potential results from Social Anxiety in Middle Childhood?
Lack of social skills necessary for engaging with others, a tendency toward avoidance, and potential withdrawal from activities with others.
318
A child's early attachment style with parents can later impact the child's _____________.
Self-concept. Insecure attachment is a risk to social problems including: anxiety, avoidance, aggression. Children in preadolescence adopt an internal working model based on earlier experiences with parents. Individuals often view themselves through the lens of how they were treated by caregivers.
319
Positive childhood experiences with parents can lead to a __________________________ in Middle Childhood.
Positive outlook on social connections. Having a previous sense of security with parents can result in higher social competence and lower aggression.
320
During what stage of development do individuals establish their own set of beliefs that help justify their behaviors?
Middle Childhood.
321
According to Multifactorial Gender Theory, individuals in Middle Childhood come to identify with a gender as well as ____________________. This is then applied to themselves.
internalizing "the worth" of that gender
322
According to Xie (2010), what identity component best predicts adjustment and self-esteem in Middle Childhood?
Gender typicality: Sense of similarity to those of your gender.
323
During what developmental stage do Black families usually have "The Talk" with children?
Middle Childhood
324
During what developmental stage do individuals usually become aware of racial and ethnic stigma and oppression?
Middle Childhood
325
What is one particular challenge that individuals in Middle Childhood may face if their parents don't speak English at home?
Having to be an interpreter for family members on top of their own individual experiences
326
What is a best practice for counselors to employ when developing interventions for young people from different backgrounds in Middle Childhood?
Having interventions be culturally relevant and potentially multilingual to increase Parental Involvement and ensure successful interventions
327
What are some social elements that can impact Academic Performance in Middle Childhood?
Peer Group Cohesion and Social Networks. Facing bullying can lead to isolation and negative academic outcomes.
327
What type of therapy has been shown to be particularly effective for working with individuals in Middle Childhood?
Choice Therapy, or the associated Reality Therapy. Allowing young people to identify the elements that aren't working in their life, and then making choices for change.
328
What developmental stage is often defined by angst and stress?
Early Adolescence
329
Does male or female puberty generally start earlier?
Female
330
What is one common problem of starting puberty either earlier or later than your peers?
Anxiety.
Concern with body shape, concern with weight, and potential inappropriate adaptive styles including the possibility of eating disorders. Increased likelihood for damaging behaviors such as dependence on alcohol, engaging more sexual partners by age 16, and being in relationships with older individuals
331
What are the chemical biological processes of puberty?
Hypothalamus releases hormone: gonadotropin (GnRH)
Signals pituitary gland to release two more hormones: luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
LH and FSH stimulate ovaries/gonads, leading to Estrogen, Progesterone, and Testosterone production. Ovulation and Sperm production begin.
Adrenal gland responds to changes indicated by the hypothalamus and pituitary glands and begins to affect digestion, energy, sleep, and the immune system.
332
What is one of the main cognitive changes during Early Adolescence?
Thinking becomes more abstract, considering hypothetical situations, advanced information-processing strategies, self-reflection, problem-solving abilities increase.
333
What is one potentially negative impact of cognitive changes during Early Adolescence?
Risky behavior. Stems from the ongoing search for independence, learning, and development of self/boundaries
334
During what developmental stage do social values shift to prioritize perspectives of peers over parents?
Early Adolescence
335
At what developmental stage does intimacy become important? Including a desire for relationships?
Early Adolescence
336
In the shift from elementary school to middle school, and then again to high school, some young people 1)__________ in these changing environments while others 2)_____________.
1) Excel 2) Struggle
337
What are the five areas of competence and self-esteem for Early Adolescents? According to Harter (1999)
○ Academic competence
○ Athletic competence
○ Likeability by peers
○ Physical appearance
○ Behavior
338
True or False: According to Harter's Theory of Competence, self-esteem in Early Adolescence comes from their parents' competence. If their parents are competent at highly valued skills in society, the individual in Early Adolescence will have increased self-esteem.
False. According to Harter's Theory of Competence, self-esteem results from the individual's competence in the areas that are deemed as important by the individual themselves (differs from person to person).
339
Using Harter's Theory of Competence and Self-Esteem, how can counselors support clients who are in Early Adolescence?
Counselors can work with clients in early adolescents to think about what is important to them and why? Are there realms of competence and self-worth that they aren't focusing on? Why not?
If a client is struggling in one area, potentially another area could be a source of confidence & self-esteem:
○ Academic competence
○ Athletic competence
○ Likeability by peers
○ Physical appearance
○ Behavior
340
James Marcia described adolescents as understanding themselves in relation to the following realms: occupation, politics, religion, and sexuality.
According to Marcia's Theory of Identity Development (1966), what are the four main identity statuses?
○ Identity confusion: is the lack of an identity crisis or the lack of committing to an identity
○ Identity foreclosure: prematurely committing to an identity without exploring, often due to an identity being forced upon them from a family member or a religious institution
○ Identity moratorium: individuals who experience many crises and try on many identities but haven't committed to any one
○ Identity achievement: experienced an identity crisis, explored aspects of multiple identities, and have committed to an identity
341
In 1995, Gregory A. Valde proposed a fifth stage of identity development to be added to Marcia's Theory of Identity Development. What was the proposed fifth stage?
Identity Closure.
Valde’s (1995) concept of Identity Closure refers to the process where individuals consolidate and stabilize their sense of self after periods of exploration and change. This often occurs later in life, when people move from experimenting with different roles and identities toward forming a more coherent and enduring self-concept.
342
What are some of the main issues that counselors may see with clients in Early Adolescence?
Risky Behaviors, Eating disorders, Peer Pressure, Self-Injury, Bullying, Suicidality, Violence, Risky Sex, and Pregnancy.
343
What are risk factors for eating disorders in Early Adolescence?
Dieting, Valuing Thinness or Peer Group Valuing Thinness, Depression, Low Self-esteem, Family Pressures, and Overuse of Media.
344
What is the Adolescent Followership Phenomenon?
Refers to adolescents voluntarily choosing peer leaders and aligning with their influence—sometimes toward healthy behaviors, other times toward antisocial or risky behaviors.
345
True or False: Drug and Alcohol Abuse in Early Adolescence primarily occurs when supported by a peer group.
True. Research consistently shows that early adolescent drug and alcohol use is linked to peer influence and group norms.
346
True or False: For individuals in Early Adolescence, car accidents are more serious or fatal when in presence of peers.
True. This is linked to heightened risk-taking and distraction caused by peer influence, which amplifies unsafe driving behaviors and reduces attention to hazards.
347
What is the effect of peer groups on crime among Early Adolescents?
Individuals in Early Adolescence have higher likelihood of committing crimes when they are with a peer group.
348
What does NSSI stand for? And what are three examples?
Non-Suicidal Self Injury, which includes cutting, severe scratching, head-banging, burning or branding, picking at wounds to prevent healing, self-poisoning
349
During what developmental stage is Non-Suicidal Self Injury the most common?
Most common during Early Adolescence and Late Adolescence. Highest rates of NSSI are reported for ages 12-25 with a peak around ages 16/17
350
What are some differences between genders when it comes to Non-Suicidal Self Injury (NSSI)?
NSSI is more common in young women than in young men. Method of NSSI also differs based on gender and sexuality with women generally preferring to cut themselves while males are more prone to burning or branding
351
What is one potential reason that a client may be injuring themselves?
There are many potential reasons for Non-Suicidal Self Injury:
- Self-punishment
- Neglect, or feeling neglected
- Wanting harm to be noticed
- Wanting to feel in control of a situation that is out of control
- Liking the release of endorphins
- Alleviate negative moods (endorphin-release can provide relief from intense emotional distress or numbness)
- Reduce suicide risk if feeling suicidal
352
What percentage of students have experienced bullying?
Between 10%-30%
353
What is one reason that researchers believe individuals begin bullying others?
As an outlet for stress/pressure in another part of the perpetrator's life
354
True or False: Between 2015-2025, instances of cyber bullying have decreased
False. Cyberbullying is increasing
355
What are some 5 factors that can contribute to the likelihood of a young person starting bullying?
Family hostility, low parental support, low teacher support, family physical decline, and repetition of past deviant behavior
356
What is the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis of bullying?
That bullying becomes an outlet for stress/pressure in other part of the perpetrator's life.
357
What percentage of public schools report having at least one incident that disrupted school activities in the last year?
31% of public schools
358
Name 3 types of violent behavior that can occur in school settings?
Violent behavior in schools can be bullying, fighting, weapons, cyberbullying, and gang violence. They can occur on school property or away from school / on the way to a school event
359
What are some factors that lead adolescents to have sex and have unwanted pregnancies?
Adolescents are ready to explore limits, taboo nature of sex before marriage, changing bodies and desires, hormonal fluctuations, assault, lack of education, all lead to sex and potentially unwanted pregnancies
360
What percentage of teen girls (15-19) reported that they didn't use contraceptives the first time they had sex?
34%
361
What percentage of teen girls (15-19) reported they did not use contraceptives the most recent time they had had sex?
31%
362
True of False: Studies have found that Early Adolescent individuals who score high on the use of alcohol and drug use at this age are also more likely to have sex after drinking or using drugs and having sex without a condom?
True
363
Adolescents have a higher degree of independence and are less likely to: ______________.
Always have an adult around to monitor their behavior
364
True or False: The U.S. has the lowest rate of STIs and the lowest rate of teen pregnancy out of any developed country.
False.
365
True or False: The U.S. has 9x the rate of STIs and the teen pregnancy compared to other developed countries.
True.
366
What percentage of high school students report drinking at some point?
72.5%
367
What percentage of high school students report drinking within the last 30 days?
41.8%
368
What percentage of high school students have had sex?
46%
369
According to studies, why do adolescents engage in risky behavior?
Due to the behaviors of their peer groups or in order to feel "grown" because they associate risky behaviors with adulthood.
370
What percentage of teenage girls cite partner pressure as a reason to have sex?
61%
371
What percentage of teenage boys cite fear of being teased for being a virgin as a reason to have sex?
43%
372
What brain regions show activation due to peer presence (indicating peer pressure)?
Ventral Striatum & Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC).
Both are crucial for decision-making, but perform distinct functions: the ventral striatum is involved in anticipating and processing reward-related signals to drive actions, while the OFC evaluates the value of potential outcomes and helps encode prediction errors for learning
373
For adolescents who have less social support, how much greater is their likelihood for using marijuana?
1.5 to 3.0 times more likely.
374
What is the most effective method for creating behavioral change in adolescents?
Positive Reinforcement
375
What are two factors that increase risky behavior among teenagers?
The number of risk factors a teenager has at home, and peer pressure
376
How does culture interact with self-esteem during adolescence?
Having a strong sense of ethnic identity is positively correlated with self-worth
377
What are some negative impacts related to racial/ethnic identity that adolescents may face while in school?
Realities of racism, stereotyping/discrimination/exclusion, microaggressions or overt violence, and language barriers.
378
How can counselors assist adolescents regarding ethnic identity and discrimination?
Encourage pride for ethnic identity, process injustices, make sense of discrimination's realities, and help them determine how they want to operate within oppressive structures.
379
What ages encompass Early Adolescence?
13-18
380
During the ages of 13-18, what fundamental psychological element do adolescents develop?
A self-concept
381
True or False: Most individuals in late adolescence are fully prepared for the economic and psychological demands of adulthood.
False
382
True or False: According to brain imaging studies, risk-taking behaviors decline between early adolescence and late adolescence.
False. Significant changes continue after age 18, and decision-making doesn't stabilize until the prefrontal cortex has fully developed.
383
True or False: According to Montgomery (2005), young women tend to develop identity and intimacy side-by-side.
True. Montgomery found this process is gender-based; women often move ahead in the intimacy domain during emerging adulthood, seeking values and closeness to develop their identity.
384
True or False: "Dualistic thinking" refers to the ability to see multiple truths and relative perspectives.
False. Dualistic thinking is seeing things as right or wrong (one of two things). The shift to "Relativistic thinking" involves acknowledging multiple truths.
385
What are Dr. Szasz's three prescriptions for adulthood?
1) Ego strengthening
2) Cognition change
3) Motivation to be more socially engaged
386
What are 5 distinct cognitive, social, and physical changes that occur during Late Adolescence?
1) Independence (Self-reliance, and solo decision-making)
2) Increasingly Future Oriented (Defined work habits, role in world)
3) Sexuality (Serious relationships, sexual identity)
4) Peak Physical Development (Last stage before biological aging begins)
5) Ethics and Self-Direction (Insight, personal dignity, self-regulation)
387
What is the "Social Clock Theory?"
Society places expectations on individuals to achieve specific coming-of-age goals (graduating, marriage, buying a home) at various points. Individuals who do not conform are often viewed negatively or feel pressure to explain their non-conformity.
388
How does Gilligan’s perspective on moral development differ from Kohlberg’s?
Gilligan emphasized a feminist perspective called "Ethics of Care." She argued that women emphasize caring during ethical decision-making, whereas men emphasize justice.
389
According to Zarrett and Eccles (2006), what are the critical qualities for healthy development in early adolescence?
Intrinsic belief in the self, mastering difficult tasks, maintaining social connectedness, regulating emotions, developing healthy attachments, and problem-solving.
390
How has the median marriage age changed from the 1960s to the 2010 Census?
Increased by 6 years.
1960s: Men 22 / Women 20
2010: Men 28 / Women 26
391
How many hours of physical exercise are recommended for individuals in late adolescence?
Minimum 2.5 hours of moderate exercise every week, plus muscle-strengthening activities 2 or more days a week.
392
What percentage of young adults (18-31) were living in their parents' home in 2012?
36% on average. Co-residence is higher among males, low SES homes, and minority groups.
393
What is the prevalence of STI contraction among sexually active young people?
50% of sexually active people will develop an STI by the age of 25.
394
What are the reported drinking rates for men and women during Late Adolescence?
Men: 65%
Women: 57%
395
Explain Cortical (Gray Matter) and Subcortical (White Matter) changes during late adolescence...
Gray Matter (Cortical): Decreases over time due to synaptic pruning
White Matter (Subcortical): Continues to increase into the 20s
Overall Result: Improved reasoning based on social/emotional information rather than impulsivity.
396
Which brain regions aid in self-regulation during late adolescence?
Prefrontal Cortex, Lateral Prefrontal Cortex, Parietal Cortices, and parts of the Anterior Cingulate Cortex.
397
What is the correlation between sleep and academic performance in late adolescence?
More sleep equates to better academic performance.
Earlier sleep and wake times = higher GPAs. High-performing students also tend to nap more frequently.
398
What are the three leading causes of death among individuals in Late Adolescence?
1) Unintentional injury (often due to alcohol)
2) Homicide
3) Suicide
399
What behaviors are linked to a lack of exercise during Late Adolescence?
Poor diet, TV watching, Not wearing a seatbelt, Smoking, Weed usage, and Perception of low academic performance.
(Maturo, Solveig, & Cunningham, 2013)
400
According to Perry's theory, what cognitive shift occurs regarding authority figures during Late Adolescence?
Young people move away from viewing authority figures as "always honest and trustworthy" and begin to question authority and rules, putting adult autonomy skills into practice.
401
True or False: Black moms provide more support than white moms during the transition from high school to college.
True
402
During Late Adolescence, individuals begin to focus on a new range of life possibilities. What are some of these possibilities?
- Education or vocational training
- Entering the labor market
- Emotional and physical separation from the family home and caregivers
- Possibility of marriage and children
403
Late Adolescence is a period of intense change where very little is normative. What are some pieces that determine "what life is" during this stage?
- Home Structure
- Family Decisions
- Work Goals
- School/Education
- Access to Resources
- Taking on Multiple Roles
404
During Late Adolescence, economic and psychological autonomy varies greatly depending on what pieces of an individual's identity?
Vary greatly based on gender, race/ethnicity, and socio-economic class
405
What are the most common health and mental diagnoses during Late Adolescence?
Depression and anxiety, asthma, obesity, alcohol addiction, STIs, and diabetes
406
True or False: Late Adolescents generally don't get enough sleep compared to what is required for their development.
True
407
Between late adolescence and early adulthood, the neural connections between the Prefrontal Cortex and the Limbic System begin to disappear. What behavioral changes result from this cognitive shift?
- Reduced influence from peers
- Increased self-regulation
- Increased ability to organize
- Enhanced cognition
- More focus on long-term planning
408
According to Piaget (1965), late adolescents are in what stage of thought?
Postformal thought: Individuals are able to decipher the abstract, developing methods of problem-solving in order to quickly assess and organize a solution to resolve the issue at hand. Emotion and Logic are now integrated.
409
True or False: according to Kohlberg, late adolescents are in Stage 6 of moral development: Universal Principles.
False. Kohlberg believed that few people ever reached level 6 of development.
410
What are the three stages of Gilligan's theory of Ethics of Care?
Preconventional: Individual survival is the goal.
- Transition from Selfishness to responsibility to others -
Conventional: Self-sacrifice is goodness
- Transition from goodness to truth that I am a person too -
Postconventional: Principle of nonviolence, do not hurt others or self
411
What does emotional competence look like for late adolescents?
The ability to perceive, assess, and manage one's own emotions
412
How is social competence defined for young adults?
The capacity to be sensitive and effective in relating to other people
413
Complete social and emotional development in late adolescence requires establishing and maintaining ____________________ based on cooperation, communication, and the ability to resolve conflict and resist inappropriate peer pressure.
Healthy balanced relationships
414
What are the four components of emotional intelligence?
- Self-Awareness
- Social Awareness
- Self-Management
- Ability to get along with others
415
At what age does Erikson's stage of Intimacy vs Isolation begin?
19 years old
416
Identity formation as a young adult requires balancing __________________.
Multiple Roles: Relationships, Work, and School.
417
For many people in late adolescence, they may be making decisions for the first time separate from the scaffolding previously provided by adults in their lives. This can lead to a wide range of results depending on ___________________, _________________, and ________________.
Results depend on:
1) What they want
2) What they need
3) What they ultimately decide
418
Young adolescents begin exploring and pushing limits in order to determine _______________.
Their personal boundaries
419
For late adolescents, friendships are both __________ and _________ during this time of life.
Strengthened & Tested
420
What are three questions that can guide young adolescents in their career development?
What are you good at?
What skills do you have?
What do you enjoy spending time on?
421
According to Zeigler et al., (2004), individuals who start drinking before age 14 are at a higher risk for ____________________.
Developing alcohol abuse disorders in Late Adolescence and Early Adulthood.
422
True or False: Individuals who drink alcohol are likely to develop learning and intellectual deficiencies, independent of when they start drinking.
False. Starting to drink before the legal age is associated with neurological risks with potential learning and intellectual deficiencies, as well as physical effects like alcohol poisoning and liver failure later in life.
423
True or False: Increased substance use can lead to less gray-matter among areas of the brain connected to behavioral inhibition, impulsivity, and empathy.
True (Dalwani et al., 2011)
424
Young adolescents have an increased risk for alcoholic and drug disorders because....?
Because brain development is still occurring during this time. Any substance use impairs executive functions and critical cortical development which in turn promotes impulsive behaviors and further risk for addiction.
425
True or False: People who are involved with Greek Life are less likely to abuse substances because of the protective factor of having a close social support network.
False.
426
College students have the highest risk out of any age group for .......?
Driving under the influence, Unprotected sex, Sexual violence, and Physical injury
427
What are three factors that impact substance use for college age students?
- Peer Pressure
- Newfound Freedom & Independence
- Legal Age to Drink
428
According to the research, knowledge of the risks of alcohol and drug use has what effect, if any, on substance use?
Can decrease drug and alcohol usage, depending on the specific risk and supportive factors of each individual
429
Academically, some college students struggle with ____________________________, potentially due to ________________________________. Counselors can assist college students _________________________________.
1) The academic jump from high school to college; 2) Lack of quality curriculum in high school; 3) Connect to academic programs like tutoring.
430
What percentage of preventable deaths have been linked to health-compromising behaviors of the individuals?
40%
431
True or False: The majority of young people drink, use drugs, and have sex prior to age 19.
True
432
True or False: According to researchers, half of all HIV infections occur in people under the age of 18.
False. According to Markowitz, Kaestner, and Grossman (2005), half of all HIV infections occur in people ages 25 or less.
433
What are the 6 Leading Causes of death in Late Adolescence and Early Adulthood?
- Injury-causing behaviors
- Tobacco use
- Drug and Alcohol use
- Risky sex
- Poor Diet
- Physical inactivity
434
What four categories of factors impact risk-taking in young adulthood?
1) Individual Factors: Low self-esteem, negative peer influence, poor academic performance
2) Familial Factors: Parental conflict, poor communication between parent and child, lack of family support, physically punitive discipline, and parents who engage in risky behavior
3) Extra-familial Factors: SES, Negative school climate, Unsafe neighborhoods
4) Natural Factors: Genetic pre-disposition and biological factors.
435
What result does having more conservative personal values have on an individual's sexual practices?
More likely to also have conservative sexual practices
436
What percentage of individuals have sex for the first time outside of a committed relationship?
25%
437
What percentage of college students have hooked up with someone? (Had sex outside of a committed relationship)
75% - 80% of college students report hooking up with someone
438
During what developmental stage do the symptoms of eating disorders usually appear?
During Middle Childhood or Early Adolescence
439
_____________ in childhood is associated with eating disorders later in life.
Impulsivity
440
True or False: CBT has proven to be the therapy of choice for treating bulimia in adults.
True
441
True or False: CBT is the most effective therapeutic approach for treating adolescents with anorexia.
False. Family therapy is the most effective for treating adolescents with anorexia.
442
True or False: According to Lock (2005), inpatient care is much more effective than outpatient care for treating individuals who have eating disorders.
False. Outpatient just as successful for those not requiring emergency services (Lock, 2005).
443
Inter-social ___________ in social groups tends to be higher among College Freshman compared to Seniors.
Diversity
444
Zarrett and Eccles (2006) highlight six specific qualities that are critical for healthy development during late adolescence. What are they?
1) Intrinsic belief in the self and the ability to make a difference in the world
2) Master difficult tasks
3) Maintain social connectedness
4) Regulate emotions
5) Develop healthy attachments
6) Problem solve
445
What are some of the positive and negative elements that come with the transition from high school to college?
Positive: Feeling more grown up, increased freedom, exploration of new ideas
Negative: Increased stress, Increased mental health issues
446
At what age do individuals reach their peak physical development?
Between 19 and 26
447
According to Perry, what is Dualistic Thinking?
A clear right and wrong, one of two things
448
What is the primary difference between Kohlberg and Piaget's understandings of moral development?
Lawrence Kohlberg stated that moral development, reasoning, and judgement take longer to develop than Piaget believed
449
According to Perry, what is Relativistic Thinking?
Multiple truths can exist simultaneously
450
During which phase of development do individuals make more major life decisions than in any other time of life?
In Early Adulthood (26-35)
451
What are some of the developmental challenges that individuals face in Early Adulthood?
- Developing mature friendships and intimate relationships
- Repositioning family ties
- Selecting a long-term career
- Considering the future
- Establishing a secure personal identity
452
In Early Adulthood, decisions made in accordance with a person's beliefs can lead to feeling ________________. When not made in accordance, ____________________.
1) full and rewarding; 2) struggles occur
453
With the right perspective, many early adults believe they _______________________.
believe they can do whatever they set out to do.
454
In Early Adulthood, individuals can experience a wide range of personal experiences based on:
- Structural factors
- Race
- Gender
- SES
- Culture
- Ethnicity
- Personality
- Life History
455
Today's families are increasingly nontraditional. What are some examples of nontraditional family structures?
- Non-marital childrearing
- Divorced and coparenting
- Cohabitation
- Remarriage
- Same-sex marriage
456
During Early Adulthood, the ability for individuals to receive familial support often depends on __________________ and __________________.
1) Cultural Background; 2) Socio-Economic Status
457
According to Jeffrey Arnett (2006), what are the five key features of early adulthood?
1) Identity exploration in love and work (frequent changes are common)
2) Instability with love, work, and education (Residential changes peak during this time)
3) Autonomy and self-focus (potentially fewer obligations and more disposable income)
4) Feeling "in-between" (don't consider themselves adolescents or full adults)
5) Age of possibilities (optimism about the future and chance to choose a life path)
458
What is the main criticism of Arnett's five features of early adulthood?
That these stages only apply to privileged adolescents and this time is not always a stage for self-determination especially for low SES or marginalized communities (Cote & Bynner, 2008)
459
During Early Adulthood, what is the primary psychosocial challenge as articulated by Erikson?
Primary challenge is to form intimate, loving relationships with other people
460
What are the Seven Stages of Cognition as put forth by Shaie and Willis (2000)?
1) Acquisitive: Individual's main purpose is to acquire information and skills (Encompasses childhood and adolescence)
2) Achieving: Intelligence applied to situations to attain goals regarding career, family, and societal expectations
3) Responsible: Career-building, protecting and nourishing those close to them such as family, spouses, and their careers (Middle-Adult)
4) Executive: Period in Middle-Adulthood when people take a broad perspective on the world compared to their earlier life (reality in this stage depends on opportunities)
5) Reorganizational: Occurs when Adult enters retirement or a time of increasingly low-work, and individual reorganizes life around priorities that are not their career or work
6) Re-integrative: Focusing on tasks that have personal meaning (Late Adulthood)
7) Legacy creating: Telling stories and beginning to distribute possessions (Elderhood)
461
Body image is a _________________ concept, a mental representation or map against which we judge ______________________.
1) Multidimensional; 2) Our external experience
462
What are three potential results from negative body image?
- Behavior changes
- Eating disorders
- Mood disorders like anxiety and depression
463
What is one way that individuals have been able to improve their body image?
- Reduce social media usage
464
True or False: The latest research shows that Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) directly impact the onset and progression of substance abuse later in life.
False. Determinants of the onset and progression of substance abuse are not fully understood.
465
What percentage of people in the U.S. (over the age of 12) use substances every month?
60.2%
466
What are 5 potential consequences of substance abuse throughout the lifespan?
Depends on the type of substance, but can include:
- Academic Failure
- Violent Crime
- Lower commitment to School
- Peer pressure or rejection
- Alienation and Rebelliousness
- Low Self-Worth
- Lung Cancer
- Coronary Heart Failure
- Blood-Transmitted Diseases
- Violent crime
- Child abuse
- Unemployment
- Slow cognitive processes
- Lack of motivation
- Debilitating mood disorders
- Accidental injury or death
467
Counselors should be aware that ______________________________ might be impacted in substance users, in turn impacting ability to understand consequences and seek professional help.
Critical cognitive thinking and problem-solving
468
Counselors should understand how ____________________________ can lead to substance use. Examples include _______________________.
1) social and psychological factors; 2) social anxiety, depression, and other mood disorders.
469
During Late Adolescence and Early Adulthood, ____________________ impacts a client's ability to develop and rely on social support.
Insecure Attachment
470
Using Mallinckrodt's model (2000), the counseling relationship itself is the site of ____________________________________________.
attachment correction and developing a sense of secure attachment
471
According to Mallinckrodt (2000), what are three components that can be successful in correcting attachment styles with clients?
- Intentional Disclosure (direction communication analyzing their patterns)
- Consistency & Dependability (Fostering client trust to rely on counseling)
- Timing Awareness (Discuss counseling as a time-bracketed experience that has a beginning and end)
472
How does each attachment style manifest in adulthood?
Secure attachment leads to healthy meaningful relationships that are empathetic
Anxious-resistant attachment leads to insecurity in relationships, characterized by being clingy, needy, controlling, or blaming
Avoidant attachment leads to a fear of closeness, being critical and intolerant of a partner
Disorganized-disoriented attachment leads to being insensitive, explosive, abusive, and untrusting in the relationship
473
According to Sternberg (2019), all types of romantic love consist of three potentially overlapping components. What are they?
Passion: includes both physical and sexual attraction
Commitment: the intent and ability to maintain the relationship over an extended period and under adverse conditions
Intimacy: having a close, warm, caring relationship with another person. Can be expressed sexually, physically, psychologically, and emotionally
474
From 1970 to 2010, did marriage rates increase or decrease? By how much?
Marriage rates decreased by 50%
475
According to Sternberg's Theory of Love, what are the 7 possible versions of love and their characteristics?
1) Liking (Intimacy Only)
2) Fatuous Love (Passion & Commitment)
3) Consummate Love (intimacy, Passion & Commitment)
4) Empty Love (Commitment Only)
5) Companionate Love (Intimacy & Commitment)
6) Romantic Love (Passion & Intimacy)
7) Infatuation (Passion only)
475
Fifty years ago, virtually no unmarried couples lived together. Now, what percentage of unmarried couples live together in the United States?
60%
476
True or False: the number of single-parent households are decreasing.
False: Along with cohabitation families, the number of single-parents households is increasing.
477
What percentage of single-parent households have a household income under the poverty line?
50%
478
True or False: In the last 20 years, LGBTQ rights have increased in the United States.
True. LGBTQ rights have increased substantially but in the last few years, some LGBTQ rights have been reversed.
479
True or False: Homosexual couples tend to have higher relationship satisfaction and conflict management than heterosexual couples, including the use of affection and humor during conflict.
True.
480
What Supreme Court Case solidified the fundamental right to marriage for LGBTQ people in the United States?
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)
481
Research tends to show that gay men tend to be more emotionally expressive in relationships than lesbian women.
False. Lesbian women tend to be more emotionally expressive in relationships than gay men.
482
True or False: Straight couples tend to be more upbeat and hopeful than Queer couples during relationship conflicts.
False. Queer couples tend to be more upbeat and hopeful in the face of relationship conflict.
483
Most Americans still desire marriage but no longer see it as ________________________.
essential to a happy life
484
According to Powell (2010), Americans' definitions of ____________ are broadening at a rapid pace.
Family
485
The sky has not in fact __________ because of differences in identity and family structure.
Fallen
486
What are some benefits of close friendships in early adulthood?
Emotional well-being, bolsters against loneliness, decreases anxiety, and improves physical health
487
Levinson (1978) extended Erikson's ideas and drew on social psychological theory to explain developing adults and the demands of society. What are the five specific stages of development that Levinson put forth for ages 17-45?
1) Early adult transition (17-21)
2) Entering the adult world (22-28)
3) Age-30 Transition (28-33)
4) Settling down (33-40)
5) Midlife transition (40-45)
488
Jeffrey Arnett (2006) states five key features that characterize emerging adulthood. What are they?
1) Identity exploration in love and work: Identity often fundamentally changes during this time
2) Instability: Residential changes peak during this time with love, work, and education instability
3) Self-focused: Little to no social obligations, meaning a lot of autonomy during this time
4) Feeling in-between: Don't consider themselves fully fledged adults but also not adolescents
5) Age of possibilities: Optimism about future and chance to "rechart" the life path from early experiences and patterns
489
According to Scott-Parker et al (2011), elevated _________ has been shown to increase impulsivity and risk-taking behaviors in early adulthood.
Distress
490
Connect the following theorists with their theories about adulthood:
1) Arnett
2) Levinson
3) Sternberg
4) Shaie & Willis
A) 5 Sub-Stages of Early Adulthood
B) 7 Possible Types of Love
C) 5 Characteristics of Early Adulthood
D) 7 Stages of Cognition
1 - C (Arnett's 5 Characteristics of Early Adulthood)
2 - A (Levinson's 5 Sub-stages of Early Adulthood)
3 - B (Sternberg's 7 Possible Types of Love)
4 - D (Shaie & Willis Seven Stages of Cognition)
491
Which theorist put forth the following 7 items? What characteristics does each item have?
1) Acquisitive
2) Achieving
3) Responsible
4) Executive
5) Reorganizational
6) Re-integrative
7) Legacy creating
Shaie and Willis (2000) Seven Stages of Cognition.
1) Acquisitive (childhood and adolescence): Individual's main purpose is to acquire information and skills
2) Achieving (late adolescence and early adulthood): Intelligence applied to situations to attain goals regarding career, family, and societal expectations
3) Responsible (early and middle adulthood) : Career-building, protecting and nourishing those close to them such as family, spouses, and their careers
4) Executive (middle and late adulthood): people take a broad perspective on the world compared to their earlier life
5) Reorganizational (late adulthood and retirement): individual reorganizes life around priorities that are not their career or work
6) Re-integrative (early elderhood): Focusing on tasks that have personal meaning
7) Legacy creating (elderhood & end of life): Telling stories and beginning to distribute possessions
492
Which developmental stage is characterized as being the "Prime of Life," generally with low mortality rates.
Early Adulthood
493
What is one possible result of a sedentary life in Early Adulthood?
Weight Gain
493
What are some health problems that can begin in Early Adulthood?
Cancer threats (testicular, cervical, Hodgkin's lymphoma), STIs, hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease
494
During Early Adulthood, long-term health is greatly impacted by _______________________?
individual choices
495
What is the expected cognitive stage of individuals in early adulthood? (Furstenberg, Rumbaut, and Settersten, 2005)
Postformal thought, Efficient abstract thinking, and In-depth self-reflection.
1) Postformal thought: no clear right and wrong, and adults draw upon past experience to assess complex decisions based on situational contexts and circumstances that integrate emotion and logic
2) Efficient abstract thinking: process information and stimuli more efficiently, problem-solving with many different possible solutions
3) In-depth self-reflection: deeper understandings of the social and cultural settings in which they live, impacting life planning, concerns and interests, personal and social identity, educational choices, recreational desires, and martial and family planning
496
True or False: There are two theories of middle adulthood that have by and large been accepted as accurate regarding human development during this stage.
False. There are beaucoup theories, each with their own perspective and framework. Good luck learning em all bish!
497
According to Freud, a healthy adult is able to do three things. What are they?
Socialize, Work, and Love
498
For early adults who pursue higher education, what is the primary emotional and physical response they will experience?
Stress
499
All of the major theorists agree on two things about early adulthood. What are they?
1) Individuals fully develop their personal identity
2) Individuals need closeness with others
500
True or False: Most adults stay at conventional stage of moral development (Kohlberg).
True, but depending on the challenges that an individual faces in early adulthood, there is a chance they will reach the postconventional stage.
501
What are individual values in the conventional stage of moral development (Kohlberg)?
Conforming to stereotypes and cultural values. Behaviors and actions are manifested along with social groups, respect for laws and rules, and the belief that authority figures are to be followed and unquestioned
502
What are individual values in the post conventional stage of moral development (Kohlberg)?
Dignities for all life, individuals have natural or inalienable rights and liberties that come before social needs. Ethical decisions are made based on situational information rather than concrete rules for specific behaviors. Decisions are based on considering multiple factors like the reasons behind an action. Overarching belief in postconventional stage is that individual freedom should only be limited when that freedom impinges upon someone else's freedom
503
What percentage of early adults have special health care needs (chronic mental, physical, emotional, or developmental conditions that require more health care and intensive support)
18%
504
Intimacy is important during Early Adulthood. Lack of relationships can lead to significant personal issues and risks to healthy adult development. Such as .......?
Depression and Anxiety: Life is seen as more serious and dangerous
505
What percentage of adults have depression? What percentage have anxiety?
6.9% of adults have depression and 18.1% of adults have anxiety.
506
When it comes to a client feeling "down," counselors should be able to distinguish between ____________________ and ___________________.
"regular sadness" and "clinical depression"
507
What are two diagnostic tools that counselors can use to determine the difference between "regular sadness" and "clinical depression" in adult clients?
- Depression Anxiety Stress Scales
- Risk Assessment of Suicide
508
Use of which counseling approach can help reduce extreme thinking during depressive episodes?
There are multiple! CBT, Solution-focused therapy, and Mindfulness therapy.
509
Individuals with a history of _____________ have higher likelihood of developing depression in Early Adulthood.
Depression. Shocker!
510
True or False: Men are more likely than Women to commit suicide in Early Adulthood.
True.
511
True or False: Men are more likely than Women to experience depression in adulthood.
False. 10% vs 25% (but this may be because men are less likely to seek help than women)
512
Career Development is a lifelong process, based on what factors?
- Interests
- Abilities
- Values
- Personality
- Background
- Circumstances
513
Along with family life, ______________ is a vital domain of social development in Early Adulthood.
Vocational Life
514
Vocational Life requires individuals to develop what four components?
1) Learn how to perform work tasks
2) Get along with coworkers
3) How to respond to authority
4) Protect their own interests
515
According to Peterson & Gonzalez (1999), how often do individuals in their 20s generally move to a new job?
Every 2 years. After a period of adjustment and evaluation, people in early adulthood generally settle into their work.
516
Some clients may need help adjusting __________________ in relation to their work.
Their goals or perspective on "success."
Sometimes individuals overshoot based in their anxiety about overarching performance, or alternatively don't see themselves as having the self-worth for a particular job
517
True or False: During Middle Adulthood, many adults let go of an overdominant ego and seek deeper significance in life.
True.
518
What stage of psychosocial development (Erikson) defines Middle Adulthood? What are the ages of Middle Adulthood defined by Wong et al vs. Erikson?
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson): 41-65
Middle Adulthood (Wong et al): 36-60
519
True or False: Middle Adulthood is the most researched developmental stage of life because the history of counseling mostly focused on individuals in the workforce.
False. Research on this life period is relatively new.
520
Over the past 100 years, average lifespan and life expectancy has increased by an additional ____ years, now standing at ____ years for the total global population.
increased by an additional 31 years. global life expectancy is now 78.6 years.
521
With increasing lifespan, researchers have started to better understand ____________.
Middle Adulthood as a unique developmental stage.
522
What is the primary emotional process that can occur in Middle Adulthood?
The Midlife Crisis: process of re-examining one's life, determining "how I got here" and rearranging priorities/beliefs/goals as needed.
"All of a sudden I am scared that the end will come, and I will be all alone, and I will have to decide what to do with myself. How come everything was fine up until now?" (Becker, 2006)
523
True or False: According to Moody & Sasser (2012), chronological age is a pretty accurate predictor for most developmental stages.
False. Chronological age is an imperfect guide to human development (Moody & Sasser, 2012), and it's more relevant to focus on values and functions rather than age.
524
According to Lachman (2004), what are the developmental tasks of Middle Adulthood?
- Losing parents and experiencing associated grief
- Launching children into their own lives
- Adjusting to home life without children (empty nest)
- Dealing with adult children who return to live at home (boomerang children)
- Becoming Grandparents
- Preparing for Late Adulthood
- Acting as caregivers for aging parents or spouses
- Changing social roles and responsibilities
525
In terms of physical aging, Middle Adulthood is _______________________.
The beginning of the decline.
- Age spots (especially in sun exposed areas)
- Thinner and Grayer Hair
- Wrinkles
- Thicker and more brittle nails
- Eyesight changes
- Initial hearing loss
- Slow declines in major organs such as lungs, heart, and digestion
- Menopause linked health issues
526
What is the difference between Primary Aging and Secondary Aging?
Primary Aging: inevitable changes that occur to everyone regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, culture, behavior, or socioeconomic status.
Secondary Aging: caused by behaviors such as smoking, drug and alcohol abuse, diet, body type, exercise
527
During what ages does Menopause usually occur? What are the physical components of Menopause?
Usually occurs between 42 and 51. Estrogen production from ovaries declines dramatically, producing hot flashes, nausea, fatigue, rapid heartbeat, and possible onset of osteoporosis.
528
During what ages does Andropause usually occur? What are the physical components of Andropause?
No set age range, but usually occurs later than Menopause. Testosterone production from testes decreases by 1%/year during middle adulthood leading to lower sperm counts. Andropause has less to do with end of reproduction and more to do with declining physical energy and sexual ability.
529
Anxieties during Middle Adulthood largely result from ___________________.
balancing multiple roles and navigating sudden role transitions (Work, Family, and Personal)
530
Counselors should evaluate the psychosocial development of individuals during Middle Adulthood in order to cater their therapeutic support. Factors can include:
- Career Paths
- Family Relationships
- Making Long-term Commitments
- Reintegrating life experiences into evolving portrait of self
- "Life Purpose"
531
Who put forth the theory of Role Dynamics? What are the three stages in this theory?
Newman and Newman (2012)
Role Overload: Too many demands and expectations to be handled in the time allowed (I.e. having multiple children while also working for example, and feeling stretched thin)
Role Conflict: Demands and expectations from various roles conflict with one another (being expected by a boss to work late while a friend's birthday party is happening)
Role Spillover: Demands or preoccupation with one role interfere with the ability to carry out another role (work disruptions from a parent's quick health deterioration and needing to enter the role of a child/caregiver/end of life provider)
532
True or False: in Middle Adulthood, it is uncommon for individuals to want to change careers.
False. It is quite common
533
What are some reasons for individuals wanting to change careers in Middle Adulthood?
Some careers end in middle adulthood (professional athletes for example)
Conflicts between job demands and personal goals (can't make the contributions that you thought could be made, or not achieving your personal goals in a job)
Succeeded as much as possible in a given career (no room for vertical movement in a company or the introduction of AI has made components of their role obsolete)
Withdrawing from work commitments to spend more time with family, or re-entering after having children. Priorities shifting with family vs work balance
Being laid off due to workforce changes (may need to find a different job market or career)
534
Changing career paths, when desired and successful, may support __________________during middle adulthood. When imposed, ____________________.
1) healthy development; 2) can be harmful
535
For individuals starting their own businesses during Middle Adulthood, it can lead to two possible outcomes. What are they?
1) Feeling successful and independent
2) Struggling to succeed and seeing it as a personal failure
536
True or False: The "Midlife Crisis" is not a formal diagnosis
True
537
For clients, what are some signs of the midlife crisis?
- Feelings of depression to the point that relationships are negatively affected
- Loss of interest in activities and questioning internal beliefs
- Feeling a need for adventure and change
- Feeling anger and blaming others due to lack of desire to continue as the same person they were
- Desire to stop caring for the same people (spouse, children, friends, family)
- Feeling "stuck" and questioning who and what should be part of the future
- Desire for new intimate relationships that challenge family and social norms
538
Midlife changes are part of growing and transitioning. They often include one main emotional/behavioral component:
Playing with "psychological opposites" compared to their decisions and behaviors in youth
539
Jung (1971) was a formative thinker about Middle Adulthood. What Crisis did Jung put forth?
"Neurotic Crisis" is the desire to prolong youth and restrain oneself from crossing the threshold into maturity
540
True or False: Everyone is expected to experience a midlife crisis at some point.
False. Transition and crisis in midlife is not an automatic event. Many individuals proceed along lifepath without ever experiencing a midlife disruption or re-examination.
541
Potential triggers for a Midlife Crisis include:
- Fear of impending death
- Job loss
- Financial difficulties
- Illness
- Divorce
- Personalities prone to distress
542
What is the Person-Environment Perspective in regards to Middle Adulthood?
- Midlife transition means adjusting to new things within self/environment
Person-Environment Perspective as a whole: Individuals are influenced by their surrounding environments, shaping their beliefs, perspectives, and actions. This theory emphasizes the importance of understanding an individual’s life experiences alongside their current cultural context to provide more effective support.
- Person is not static
- People continually change
- Culture-Environment interaction defined by:
Beliefs
Values
Behaviors
Attitudes
Thoughts
Relevant Cultural Artifacts
543
When it comes to the Person-Environment Perspective, counselors should be aware of what?
That changes occur within the individual but are continually influenced by interactions with other people, culture, environments, and societies.
544
What cultural elements should counselors be aware of with the Person-Environment Perspective?
1) Define and understand the different factors that impact cultural identity development
2) Gain perspective on the way others may differ or be similar to our own identity
3) Understand differences as something to celebrate and learn about
4) Understand culture as an ongoing evolution as we grow and develop throughout the lifespan
545
True or False: Socio-economic status also impacts individual culture/life experiences.
True.
Social hierarchies exist, and people often sense their "place" in the social ladder
SES impacts to mental health can be exacerbated during middle adulthood, but there's great diversity to this
Discrimination based on SES (just like any other identity) can lead to deep anger exacerbated during middle adulthood
546
What are some phrases for Black Americans that describe overt and subtle racism that impact workplace dynamics?
"Last hired, First fired"
"You don't fit the workplace culture"
"Not really management material"
The Black Tax: "work twice as hard to get half as far"
"Just so angry"
547
True or False: Middle adulthood well-being (or lack of) impacts others around the individual.
True.
Counselors can have far-reaching consequences by supporting individuals during this pivotal lifestage.
548
While middle adulthood is characterized as a time of relative stability, the counseling implications for assisting individuals in their midlife are __________________.
multiple and complex
549
True or False: Counseling individuals in Middle Adulthood has historical precedent, as Adults are the largest constituency to seek counseling services.
False. Counseling implications for Middle Adulthood are newly felt because the population has never lived this long before.
550
Across the lifespan, counselors should be mindful of culturally specific nonverbal behavior. What are some examples of different expectations regarding nonverbal behavior?
- Eye contact
- Posture
- Physical Touch
- Body-to-body proximity
- Vocal tracking
551
Multi-cultural counseling is a particularly important framework for working with middle adulthood clients. What are some elements of Multi-cultural counseling?
- Awareness of one's own assumptions, values, and biases
- Understanding the individual worldview of the client
- Develop appropriate intervention strategies and techniques
552
What are some ways that counselors can support clients who are facing discrimination in the workplace?
Counselors can help process the drain, exhaustion, coping skills, advocacy opportunities, and addictive risks that come with facing discrimination
553
What age range encompasses Late Adulthood?
61-75
554
True or False: Late Adulthood is a time of dependency and deterioration.
Both True and False. Physical changes are accelerating but Late Adulthood can also be a great time relax and enjoy life at a different pace.
555
By 2035, there will be ____________________ people over the age 65. This is compared to ____________________ in 2016.
78 million people compared to 50.8 million people in 2016.
556
True or False: individuals in Late Adulthood have a high need for more effective therapeutic services.
True.
Growing threats of mental health issues and chronic diseases in Late Adulthood require additional support systems including gerontological counseling and elderly care
557
Among Late Adulthood, there is a higher percentage of _____________________________ compared to other age cohorts
depression and mental disorders
558
True or False: According to Arking (1998), aging is defined as a time-dependent series of cumulative, progressive, intrinsic, and harmful changes that begin to manifest at reproductive maturity and eventually culminate with the end of life.
True
559
What is one of the greatest emotional challenges for individuals in Late Adulthood?
Accepting life on life's terms
560
True or False: Recent research clearly shows that older adults are the unhappiest developmental group.
False. Research differs on impacts of happiness and age, with some studies showing that older adults are happier and others indicating the opposite
561
True or False: One thing that most researchers agree on is that accepting life throughout the lifespan can bring happiness in later life
True
562
What are the main components of the psychosocial stage Integrity vs Despair (Erikson)?
- Have we accomplished our life goals?
- Do we feel guilty about past actions?
- Life satisfaction vs. Life dissatisfaction
- Self-cohesion vs. Depression & Isolation.
563
What are the three stages of adaptation in Late Adulthood?
Selection, Optimization, and Compensation.
This model allows for successful aging where older adults strategically manage limited resources by selecting key goals, optimizing abilities through practice/learning, and compensating for losses with new strategies or tools (like technology or assistance) to maintain well-being and function, adapting effectively to life changes like declining health or energy.
564
What are some internal and external influences to personal satisfaction in Late Adulthood?
- SES
- Health Status
- Vitality
- Sociability
- Cultural Involvement
565
As lifespan increases, life planning has changed how people organize Key Events in their lives. This applies to ................?
- Goals
- Timing
- Sequence
- Duration
- Spacing
566
Life goals in Late Adulthood often include:
- Social relationships and family
- Work and daily-living activities
- Finances
- Health and Fitness
- Leisure Activities
- Self-Reliance
567
Originally put forth by David Bakan (1966) and later adapted, what four orientations can drive decision-making for life goals during Late Adulthood?
1) Agentic (Capacity to make independent choices for themselves)
2) Communal (Think of their communal structure as most important)
3) Self-preservation (Focus on self)
4) Well-being of others (Focus on others)
568
True or False: Well-being in Late Adulthood is clearly defined in the literature, including 6 distinct components.
False.
Well-Being, while often discussed, doesn't have a clear definition. It can include:
- Positive emotions and moods
- Absence of negative emotions
- Fulfillment and positive functioning
- Meaning in life
- Satisfaction with emotional and social support
It can be dependent on:
- Access to basic resources
- Good health
- Positive social relationships
Instruments for determining Well-Being include:
- NHANES
- NHIS
- BRFSS
- Porter Novelli Health-Styles Survey
569
According to the World Health Organization (2008), "Good health" means a lack of illness or disease.
False.
"Good health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being" (WHO, 2008)
570
What are the most common physical and mental health issues in Late Adulthood?
Cardiovascular disease, Hypertension, Arthritis, Hearing Impairment, Cataracts, Glaucoma, Lower Back Problems, More Severe Acute Health Issues (Like Influenza), Helplessness, Fear, Depression, Dementia, Anxiety, PTSD, Bipolar Disorder, Alcoholism/Substance Addiction
571
In Late Adulthood, Competence means an individual's ability to:
1) Meet their basic needs
2) Learn, grow and make decisions
3) Be as mobile as possible
4) Build and maintain relationships
5) Contribute to society
572
The functional abilities of individuals in Late Adulthood results from which two components?
Intrinsic capacity (+/-) Environmental characteristics
Intrinsic: Mental and Physical capabilities (thinking, mobility, hearing, seeing, remembering)
Environmental: (disease, injuries, built environment, societal values, support systems)
573
Humans can live up to _________ years, depending on Nutrition, Environmental Hazards, Diseases, and Risks of Poverty and Civil Unrest.
120 years
574
Many people don't want to live to 100 years old because of potential quality of life issues later in life. Such as:
- Physical Health
- Ability for Self-Care
- Mental Acuity
- Potential Isolation
- Financial Security
- Mobility
575
True or False: Rather than a time of loss, Late Adulthood Includes both positive and negative transitions and transformations.
True
576
What are the three main components of Bates (1987) Theory of Growth and Decline?
Lifelong Plasticity: Development is not static after adulthood; the potential for change and adaptation (plasticity) continues across the entire lifespan.
Multidirectionality: There is no single "normal" path for development. Different abilities can show growth, stability, or decline at different points in life.
Growth and Decline are Intertwined: Any developmental process involves aspects of both growth and decline. Gaining one capacity might require sacrificing another. For example, as adolescents gain effective self-regulation, they might sacrifice some spontaneous creativity.
577
When counseling clients in Late Adulthood, special consideration should be given to fear around:
- Loss of power
- Role change
- Societal worth
- Independence
578
True or False: Dependence and Independence are two concrete realms of existence for individuals in Late Adulthood. Once enough factors have accumulated, counselors should support clients into accepting dependence.
False. Dependence and independence is a continuum. Counselors can simultaneously point out successes and help clients process failures / accept transitions.
579
What are the 6 components of Giordano's (2000) Guide to Counseling Individuals in Late Adulthood and Elderhood?
1) Physical aging changes affects understanding. Continue dialogue longer instead of changing topics
2) Listen to more than words, including nonverbal cues such as eye contact, tone of voice, body language, and personal care
3) Be aware of your own nonverbal messages and adjust to the needs of the client (Hearing loss requires therapist to speak louder and more clearly for example)
4) Don't "fill the space." Allow time for conversation and information gathering, leaving quiet space for client processing,
5) Encourage assistive listening devices
6) Do not patronize or talk down. Use age-appropriate vocabulary
580
True or False: White people are the fastest growing segment of the population in Late Adulthood.
False: Non-cracker communities are the fastest growing segment of the population in Late Adulthood.
581
Aging is influenced by sequential ______________, ____________, and ______________ changing contexts.
Individual, Environmental, and Social
582
True or False: Counselors can't do much to help people in elderhood to feel empowered in their life because of the sheer amount of loss.
False. duhhh. An increasing area of practice, counselors can work with elders to feel empowered, meet their needs, and achieve improvements to life satisfaction.
583
How many indicators are there of Quality of Life in Elderhood?
More than 1,000 indicators including objective and subjective elements.
584
True or False: The oldest individuals in Elderhood are most at risk for threats to life satisfaction.
True. This can result from:
- Loss of spouse
- Changes in social network
- Housing and living arrangement changes
- Age-related diseases and comorbidity
585
True or False: Most components of biological aging have no impact on normal functioning, but can be exacerbated when under acute stress.
True. Illness, emotional loss, and life changes can all exacerbate the elements of biological aging.
586
True or False: Successful Aging must be prepared long in advance.
True. Preventative measures include:
- Health promotion to reduce the risk of declining health
- Planning for the future
- Increasing social resources that may be drawn upon in later life
587
Among older adults, age is negatively correlated with what social elements?
negatively correlated to number of interpersonal relationships, network size, and non-primary group connections.
588
Among Elders, interpersonal relationships and communication skills have been shown to influence ............................?
influence physical and mental health, magnitude of illnesses, likelihood of healing, likelihood of institutionalization, and overall life satisfaction
589
What are Social Convoys?
A social convoy is the cohort that accompanies an individual through their life. Generally expanding and contrasting from time to time, but decreasing in old age partially because of illness and old age but also because of social pruning where people begin to reduce their social networks
590
Frequency of ____________________ decrease in older age due to fewer friends & relatives to feel connected to, decreases in mobility, physical and mental issues, environmental issues, SES, and access to transportation.
Social activities
591
Loneliness and Isolation have damaging consequences for well-being in Elderhood, including an increase in morbidity and mortality, but the __________ of social network is relatively unimportant
size
592
Research shows that clients in Elderhood can have more positive outcomes if counselors support them to build _____________________ and __________________.
build social networks and maintain contact with family
593
What are some ways that policymakers can support people in Elderhood?
By reducing barriers to social events and creating accessible communal housing for older populations
594
For Elders, COVID-19 dramatically increased ___________.
isolation
595
True or False: In Elderhood, isolation is twice as likely as obesity to be harmful to an individual's health.
True. The health risks from social isolation in Elderhood are as much as smoking 15 cigarettes a day.
596
Thoughts of ___________ increase when Elders feel like a burden.
Thoughts of suicide. For isolated home-bound elders, 13% are at a very high suicide risk.
597
Retirement is a huge change and often requires processing new life goals and wants/needs. While for some it is relaxing and relieving, for others it can be a struggle. What are some positive and negative potential elements to retirement?
Positive:
- More time for family
- Pursuit of new social relationships
- Self-actualization
- Meaningful engagement in community
Negative:
- Partial loss of identity
- Decision paralysis
- Diminished self-trust
- Postretirement void
- Death anxiety
- Feelings around dependency on others
598
What are the five stages of grief at the end of life?
Denial/Anger/Bargaining/Sadness/Acceptance
599
What are physical aspects of aging for people in Elderhood?
- Energy levels slow, less active, weight gain
- Body systems deteriorate
- Sensory loss (hearing and vision) decreases movement, mobility, and communication
- Increasing wrinkles, sunspots, hair turns completely gray and fragile
- Changes in bone mass and muscle strength, increasing risk for dangerous falls
- Sensitivity to scents, light changes, and medication caused by changing body systems
600
What are emotional aspects of aging for people in Elderhood?
- Feelings about external physical changes
- Changing hobbies or social activities
- Potential isolation from decreasing social interaction
- Vulnerability and potential distrust of others
- Fear of disability and death, potential increase in desire for religion
- Fear of dependency
601
What is the primary Psychosocial Crisis of Elderhood (Erikson)?
Integrity vs Despair (65+)
- Struggle between acceptance of the conditions of aging versus wanting to live longer
- Process of life review
- Sense of life fulfillment or feeling despair at physical or social position
602
How can counselors support clients around the crisis of Integrity vs. Despair in Elderhood?
Research shows that conducting a comprehensive life review with elder clients is effective for feeling integrated and whole during this stage.
603
True or False: End of life processing and planning is basically the same for all people, independent of culture and identity.
False. There are enormous cultural differences in processing and planning for end of life.
Some cultures have an aversion to those who are old, which can result in social isolation and neglect at a particularly vulnerable time
604
True or False: Most elders find that people in their life are open to talking directly about death.
False. Many people are reluctant to talk about the topic of death openly with their loved ones. This can lead to additional anxiety and guilt.
605
What are the core principles of end of life care?
- Respecting dignity of client and caregivers
- Sensitive and respectful of patient and family wishes
- Pain alleviation
- Assessing psychological, social, and spiritual needs
- Continuity of care between providers
- Access to therapy, including nontraditional or alternative ones
- Access to Hospice
- Right to refuse treatment
- Right to discontinue treatment
- Using evidence-based care
- Educating physicians, caregivers, and the public about good end of life care
606
What Counseling Theories & Techniques can help working with people in Elderhood?
- Reality Orientation
- Milieu Therapy
- Reminiscence Groups
- Remotivation Therapy
607
True or False: Counseling is generally less effective when working with Elders.
False. Research shows that counseling is highly effective for elders.
608
Cultural competence is a central component of what it means to be a counselor, and counseling practices or agencies can increase cultural competence towards Elders with 5 steps. What are they?
1) Recruiting and training individuals who have experience working with older adults
2) Diversity-oriented programs with solid outreach efforts
3) Diversity Training
4) Professional Education on working with Elders
5) Systemic incorporation of cultural competence into all areas of the practice
609
True or False: Life satisfaction and aging well are increasing in important within counseling practices.
True
610
True or False: Rates of life satisfaction are relatively stable across all developmental stages.
True
611
What are two potential emotional risks for Elders that are can occur based on an individual's attachment style?
- Pushing away support systems
- Overdependence on others
612
True or False: Improving emotional health in Late Adulthood and Elderhood can also improve some physical ailments as well.
True
COUN 5025: Human Growth & Development
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