1
Q
What is socialization?
A
Modification of behaviour in the indiv. Due to interaction with other members of the social group
2
Q
What is Ontogeny?
A
Development and growth of the individual
3
Q
What is the difference between altricial and precocial?
A
Altricial - organism born undeveloped - primates brains relatively undeveloped at birth
Precocial - born well developed - deer walks within moments of birth
4
Q
Socialization of Primate infants
A
Primate infants- a lot to learn
Single births
grasping hands
Most are not parked but carried around 24/7
Opportunity to learn through observation and experience
Reliance upon learning
5
Q
What are the major socializing agents of primate infants??
A
Mothers
Alloparents - any care taker that is not mother
Adult males
Peers
6
Q
What are the variabilities in maternal care?
A
1-age of mother 2-parity of the mother- experience Nulliparous-no previous offspring Primiparous- one previous offspring Multiparous- multiple offspring 3-rank of the mother -sex ratio biasing - HRMother- permissive- let kids go LRmother-anxious/distanced from group
7
Q
In what species is alloparenting common?
Done but restricted by mother?
A
Common in vervet monkeys, langurs and marmosets
Restricted in macaques, baboons and chimps
8
Q
Why would others (especially females) be so interested in taking care of someone else’s offspring?
A
1- learning to mother 2-mother relief hypothesis 3-adoption hypothesis 4-status elevation 5- selfish allomother
9
Q
What is the mother relief hypothesis?
A
Some mothers encourage someone else taking care of her infant so they can get a break
10
Q
What is the adoption hypothesis?
A
Infant benefits from others taking care of them if the infant is on it’s own/paradise and is tolerated in this case of allo parenting
11
Q
What are the 5 categories of adult male infant interactions/relationships?
A
1- intensive care taking 2-affiliation 3-occasional affiliation 4- tolerance 5- use and abuse
12
Q
5 categories of adult male infant interactions/relationships
What is intensive care taking?
A
- males take large portion of the day taking care of infants
- share all parental duties except nursing (carrying, protecting, food sharing)
- most common- monog. NWM
- male care ends- infant capable of independent movement
13
Q
5 categories of adult male infant interactions/relationships
Affliation?
A
- males spend part of the day in friendly interactions with one or more specific infants
-enduring relationships - not intensive care taking
-infants attracted to males and turn to them in times of distress
-males babysit while mom away - males protect from other group members
-Side by side foraging (OWM never share food
-infants Life long bonds with males
Males are “friends” with mother
14
Q
5 categories of adult male infant interactions/relationships
Occasional affiliation?
A
- Only some males,
- only occasionally
- Males typically indifferent to infants
- end of the affiliation continuum
15
Q
Which species do males do affiliation?
A
Some baboons, black howlers, gorillas, stump tailed macaques
16
Q
Which species do males do intensive care taking?
A
Marmosets and tamarins
17
Q
Which species do males occasionally affiliate with infants
A
Spider monkeys and chimps
18
Q
5 categories of adult male infant interactions/relationships
Tolerance
A
- males permit infants to be near them, rarely direct affiliation towards them
- same species as occasional affiliation
19
Q
Which species are males tolerant towards infants?
A
Spider monkeys, chimps, some japanese and rhesus macaques
20
Q
5 categories of adult male infant interactions/relationships
Use and Abuse?
A
- Males interact in ways that are beneficial to the male, harmful to infant
- Agonistic buffering (triadic male-infant interactions
- mothers may resist
- mothers may be drawn in to support male
21
Q
The extreme end of the continuum is infanticide
What are some possible explanations? 3
A
Sexual selecton hypothesis- trying to get female to cycle
Male competition hypothesis- getting rid of future competition
Byproduct of aggression-not very likely and can happen right after group take over everyone hyped up
22
Q
What does play teach young primates?
A
First experience with competition
How to interact with non relatives
23
Q
What is play distinguished by?
A
Distinguished by fact that it is is exaggerated, repeated and restrained
Ex running- exaggerated, loose, relaxed
Fighting and chasing- restrained
24
Q
What is play reduced by?
A
Stress, toxic compounds, lack of food, competitors, temperature, predators
25
Explain the two types of Play
Solitary play-
Rotational/locomotor- twirling, somersaults, rolling, running ect
Social Play-
With others- wrestling, chasing
Primate play face -relaxed open mouth
26
What are some if the functions of play?
Practice for adult skills
Eg- practicing termite fishing
Practicing locomotor and physical skill
Developing social skill
- work out dominance relations
- develop social bonds
27
With monogamous social organization with whom does play occur?
Play with neighbours, siblings and parents, solitary play is common
28
With mm- mf and female bonded social organization with whom does play occur?
Kin and friends
29
Why is there no distinct social role or behaviour for old primates as there are foe humans?
No Division of Labour
No Awareness of mortality
No Menopause
30
What does the experience of old animals depend on?
Social organization or group/species and reproductive history of the individual eg. Old japanese macaques- and continuity due to kinship
31
Other than humans, what is the reproductive span for primates
Their lifespan - they do not have menopause
32
Which species other than humans get menopause
Orca's and pilot whales
Large bodied, group living mammals - difference- male and female philopatry
33
What is the grandmother hypothosis?
Menopause is directly adaptive via increases in survivorship of descendants
Women stop reproducing because there are greater fitness benefits to be had by helping daughter and grandkids than having more babies yourself
34
Menopause in women. Is..,
Universal midlife occurance
Temporally distinct from the overall aging of the organism
Associated in assistance in care of grandkids
35
Offspring competition and reproductive costs hypothesis orcas and pilot whales
Males survival strongly influenced by presence of mother throughout life
Offspring of older mother less likely to survive
Larger the group, costly to keep producing kids that will compete with other kin, especially if survival rate is low
36
Describe reproductive termination in non human primates
- occurs very late in life
- characteristic of small number if very old animals
- not temporally distinct from overall age of organism ( no distinct phases like menopause)
- nothing to do with increased production or survivorship of grandkids
Primates will reproduce until they die
37
What is important to know about primate lifespans?
Primates are very long lived
Lifespan and body size are correlated - larger bodies live longer
38
What is the life span of monkeys?
Apes?
Humans?
Monkeys 15-30 yrs
Apes up to 50 ( 40s in the wild 60s in captivity)
Humans up to 120
39
Are there sex differences in behaviour? What were the finding of Studies?
-most differences become most obvious at puberty
-exist in infants in some species
Ex rhesus macaque male infants show:
-more assertive/aggressive behaviour
-more rough and tumble play
-more independence from mothers
-less interested in grooming and in other infants
Different preferences for gendered toys- males preferred moving toys females preferred dolls to groom
40
What is alloparenting?
| Who (besides mom) cures for or interacts with infants?
Alloparenting = otherparenting
Juvenile female
female kin- called "aunting"
Adult males- depends on social organization
41
Transitioning to adult hood
More gradual for males than females-bills which are slower especially sexually dimorphic species
Puberty
Natal dispersal-transferring to new groups is very dangerous
High mortality
Females will pick an immigrant male over a high-ranking male in her group
42
What are the four components of communication
Signal
motivation
mechanism
function
43
Four components of communication – signal?
-observable action (example. Vocalization,visual display, sent marking/pheromones scent
-Signal maybe innate, but appropriate use must be learned in social context
Eg. Texas rehab macaques-raised eyebrow – low-level threat
-Open mouth gape – double threat- Visual display
44
Four components of communication- motivation?
-internal state of the animal(feelings, emotions, intentions)
- can be inferred from the actions that accompany the signal
And/or
External stimulus in the environment
45
Four components of communication – mechanism?
How does the signal affect the receiver? What is the receiver responding to?
- is the receiver responding to information encoded in signal i.e. signal meaning
- is receive a response determined by some physical quality of the signal? (I.e Chemical or factory cues, auditory impact of vocalization?)
- is receiver responding to who is signalling and/or the context in which the signal is produced? Eg. "I love you" mom supposed guy on the train = different response
46
What did the cheny and Seyfarth Play back experiments on wild vervet's (cercopithecines) reveal?
Revealed that vervets can:
- identify individuals by their vocalization(individually distinctive and they know who it is)
-recognize relationships between kin (infant cries they look at the mother)
-produce three types of alarm calls – snake, Leopard, raptor – and employee escape response is appropriate to each predator class (alarm calls – raptor – hide under tree, steak – stand tall, leopard – hide into tree)
Is this language?
47
Explain the motivation, mechanism and function
Signal----------Reaction
(Short bark). (Group runs, looks ⬆️)
Environmental context: Hawk flying overhead
Motivation of sender: environmental stimulus produces context-specific fear response (alarm call)
Mechanism: information transfer (hawk!) vs. Affect induction (Watch out and do what I do!) vs. Associative learning ("short bark"= "run and look up") - learned in group
Function: Kim biased altruism? I.e increase callers inclusive fitness by warning kin of predator
48
Four components of communication -function?
Adaptive value of the signal to sender, either directly or indirectly via receiver fitness-kin selection – how benefits center?
Eg. Alarm calls
threats
courtship gestures
49
What is the difference between observations and inferences
Observations:
Signal➡️ reaction ➡️environmental ➡️context
Inferences:
Motivation ➡️mechanism ➡️function
50
Explain scent marking
| Which species is it most common in?
-dispersed in the air
-deposited on substrates
Functions:
-Mark territories
-attract mates
-advertise dominance status
– sexual receptivity
– aggressive/competitive encounters
Olfactory communication most important in solitary, nocturnal primates e.g. Lorises and galagos
51
What are the four modes of communication?
– Olfactory
– a visual
– tactile
– auditory/vocal
52
Explain olfactory communication
– Typical mammilian pattern uses chemical signals – pheromones
- Limited use in anthropoids?
More extensive in prosimians
53
What are the advantages/disadvantages of olfactory communication
-conveys message after the sender has left
– Subject to the elements (wind, rain)
– Advertises information whether you want to or not (Health or reproductive cycle)
54
What are the four main types of visual communication??
Facial expressions, body postures, tail postures, colouration
55
Explain facial expressions
– Permit very diverse messages
– Only good for close range signalling
Dash many expressions are universal across species e.g. stare, grimace
– More limited in prosimians
56
How is vocal communication researched in not human primates?
Sonogram/graph:
Provides a spec to graphic picture of the soundwaves
-primates Display great variation in vocal pitch and intensity
57
Explain vocal communication
Advantage – ability to attract the receivers attention without being in view
– Some arboreal primates have developed anatomic specializations to call long distance through the forest e.g. howler monkeys, samangs
Louder call bigger territory call travels half of the territory
58
Explain tactile (touch) communication
– Difficult to study since we can't perceive the message the same as the receiver
-occurs in intense and intimate social interactions
E.g. mother/infant, male/female consort ship
-Grooming is the most studied of tactile communication
- primary function is to maintain social bonds and reduce tension
-secondary function is to remove parasites
59
Which social contexts is grooming observed
```
– Mothers pacify infants
– prelude to mating consort pairs
– reinforces kinship bonds
- reduces tension between potential adversaries
– involved in reconciliation
```
60
What is the purpose of self grooming?
Personal hygiene, appears to come individuals in tense situations
61
Explain other tactile behaviours
– Greeting and reunion hugs and kisses e.g. chimpanzees and spider monkeys especially found in fission and fusion societies
62
What are communication systems needed for?
Complex social lives of primates and sharing of ecological information
63
Intelligence: what is the difference between don't mean general and domain specific intelligence?
Domain general – a single unitary capacity
Domain specific – many different capacities
64
Why are big brains in primates a dilemma?
Despite all advantages they are expensive to run energetically -more selection against big brains than for it
65
Because brains are energetically expensive to run how has this been off set?
Primates have energy real location such as smaller gets fewer altricial offspring
66
What selection pressure favoured intelligence in primates? Two hypotheses
1-ecological factors – associated with locating and processing inaccessible food items
2-social factors – associated with life in large complex social groups
67
For the ecological intelligence(hypothesis) what would selection favour?
-ability to form spatial mental map of food trees
-ability to protect Temporel variation in seasonal foods(form temporal maps?)
-ability to extract difficult to find or eat foods(E.g. hard shelled nuts, buried roots and tubers, insect larva hidden in Tree bark, Seeds contained within pods
-ability to use tools to access food (extractive foods example chips fishing for termites and ants /nuts only chimps and capuchins are extractors)
Prediction: frugivores and extractive foragers should have larger neocortex then folivores
68
Give some evidence that intelligence and primates is linked to diet
Cebus monkeys
– Highly extractive forgers
– Considered the most intelligent New World monkeys
But what came first?
Spider monkeys – frugivores – have twice the brain size of howlers – folivores – close relative same forests
69
For social intelligence (hypothesis )what would selection favor?
```
Ability to:
– deal with conflict and competition
– Form coalitions in alliances
– Form dominance hierarchies
-reconcile disputes or make peace
-deceive others, detect deception
– Form enduring social bonds
– Engage in reciprocity
– Keep track of own and others relationships
```
Prediction:species living in large social groups should have larger neocortex then those living in smaller groups
70
Evidence that intelligence in primates is linked to social complexity?
Dunbar social brain Hypothesis (and study)
Compiled data on 25 primate species on
-size of neocortex( relative to size of brain)
-diet (folivores vs. Frugivore vs. Extractive foragers)
-group size ( found larger group size positively correlates with larger
neocortex)
-little correlation btwn diet And neocortex size
71
What is Machiavellian intelligence??
Idea that primate intelligence is social intelligence but driven specifically by the need for social manipulation
72
Explain deception in humans
Intentional behaviour that acts to persuade another to believe something that is false
73
Give some examples of animals unintentional deception
- quail feign injury to lure predators away from young
- insects mimicking appearance of foul tasting species to trick predators
- camouflage
74
What should the deception in primates involve at the least?
| Give examples
1-flexible behaviour patterns
2-interactions between and among members of the same species
Examples of deception in primates- fake trauma, fake alarm calls, hiding to mate and pretending not to see food
75
What is theory of mind?
Necessary condition for true deception in humans (ability to attribute mental states like beliefs, intent, desires pretending ect. To ones self and others have beliefs, intent ect. And perspectives different than ones's own)
Deception - changing mental knowledge or states of others
76
Do primates have theory of mind??
Human adults - yes
Human children- no -can not distinguish what they know from what others know eg. Smarties in matchbox
Apes- inconclusive- in "ecologically relevant" contexts (eg. Competition) seem to understand visual perception of others but not the mental states
Monkeys- unknown- they may attend to 'line of sight' of other monkeys
77
What is the limit to primate intelligence in terms of transferability
Capacity in one domain does not necessarily transfer to another
Eg. Vervet monkeys and pythons
Tracks/stored carcasses
- "attribution" in competitive contexts but not in cooperative ones
78
Explain the Home range
The entire range of a group of animals
- the widest area a group of animals travels
- a circumscribable area in which all daily and seasonal activities take place
- longer studies tend to have larger home range estimates for species
79
Why is home range and important concept?
1- testing hypothesis derived from behavioural ecology theories
2- applied conservation
80
Which are the two methods used for measuring home range?
1-Grid count method- mark position of animals on map, super impose a grid, count # of grids entered and calculate the area
2-minimum convex polygon- mark position of animals on map, draw a polygon around the points, calculate the area of the polygon
81
What are some positives and negatives of the two methods to measure home range
1- Grid cell count-
Size of cell greatly influences area
- core use easily calculated
2-minimum convex Polygon-
- easy to calculate
- comparable btwn sites
- overestimates area
- Longer the study, longer the area
82
Home range
Define
Core Area and Daily Path length/day journey length
Core area- areas where groups spends disproportionately large amount of time ex. Main feeding,sleeping trees, watering holes, etc. Areas integral to daily life.
Daily path length- distance group or animal travels in one day
83
What is Territory and what does it mean to be territorial?
Territory is an area that is actively defended and exclusively used
Territoriality- the behaviour (active defence and exclusive use) associates with the territory
84
What are the functions of territoriality? (Agonistic between group interactions)
1- defense food supply (females?)
2-defence of females(males)
3-defence of both (hired gun hypothesis- eg. Chimps – when males protect females – protecting females were protecting food sources
4- phylogeny (relatedness between species) -inherited trait that has been passed down whether they need it or not)
5- link to monogamy? Monogamous tends to be territorial
-remember different explanations different cases -probably not a single phenomenon
85
Explain inter group interactions
- range from very friendly and some species to very aggressive
- some regularly join up and form super troops(eg gelada and hamadrayas)
- summa are violently territorial – chimpanzees
- some groups have extensive ranges to avoid each other
86
What is intergroup dominance
When one group is able to consistently displace another group regardless of where they meet
87
How is intergroup dominance determined – i between group Competition
Dominant group depends on group size and sometimes number of males and females in the group
88
Define allopatry
When the geographic ranges of two species do not overlap- two species don't live near each other
Eg. Lemurs and lorises
89
Define sympatry
When two or more species have overlapping ranges. Results more competition for resources. The more closely related to species the more competition eg spiders, howlers, cebus
90
Explain competitive exclusion
Complete competitors cannot coexist
Animals with similar needs,living in the same place must find ways to reduce direct competition
91
Defined niche divergence
- also called niche partitioning: differentiation of species- specific adaptations that exist In same area with similar ecological requirements
-niche divergence allow similar species to reduce competition through separation of some or many aspects of their ecology
Eg. Three monkeys movie
Slight differences in diet, forest strata and activity patterns
92
What are the layers of the forest strata
```
Top- emergent layer
Canopy layer
Under story layer
Immature layer
Herb layer
```
93
What are the effects of interspecific competition?
Species can experience both contest and scramble competition. The less successful competititor will experience a reduction in any/all of these:
- population density
- geographic distribution
- ranging patterns
- dietary diversity
94
What are some benefits of interspecies competition?
Access to otherwise inaccessible food resources
Increased predator detection and warnings
Improved competitive ability
Social benefits??
95
Predation and infanticide explain in theoetical, empirical terms and what evidence
Theoretically- both credited in being major source of evolution of primate social life
Empirically - both relatively rare, little good solid quantitative data
Actual evidence-both rely on the existence of counter strategies (anti predator anti infanticide )
96
Give examples of primates as predators
Humans- everything
Chimpanzees- galagos, bush babies, black and white colobus, red colobus, red tail monkey, blue monkey, baboons
Baboons- small deer and vervet
Blue monkeys - galagos and bush babies
97
Do primates help or hinder plants?
Help-pollination and seed dispersal
Hinder-flower and seed predators to plants, damage to limbs and bark
98
How many primate species are there? How many are in jeopardy??
250 species
| 50%
99
What are the four types of species?
Keystone, indicator, flagship, foundation
100
What is a keystone species?
- plays the role in the ecosystem that is analogous to that of keystone in an arch (if you remove it the arch -ecosystem -will fall apart
-has a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its abundance - eg- top food chain predator such as sharks and wolves
Eg- a critical seed disperser (primates?)
101
What is a foundation species?
- dominant primary producer in an ecosystem both in terms of abundance and influence
Eg. Corals in coral reef
Primates are NOT a foundation species
102
What is an indicator species?
- Very generally- a species whose presence may indicate the "health" of the environment
- more specifically- species whose presence indicates that some environmental condition is met
- eg. Spider monkeys and disturbance
103
What is a flagship species?
-"marketing"- not biological concept
-"charismatic" species that can engender support from the public
-useful in protecting the entire ecosystem of the "flagship" and thereby all other species within
-chosen for vulnerability and attractivness
Eg. Often primates- Indian tiger, giant panda, african elephants
104
What are the intrinsic factors in species vulnerability?
1-Body size- more vulnerable to hunters/require more food
2-Pace of reproduction/life history- the slower/longer the more vulnerable
3-home range size-species requiring larger home ranges more vulnerable
4-social group size and cohesion-( same as above)
5-territorial - more vulnerable
6-diet - specialist more vulnerable
7-geographic distribution-smaller more vulnerable
8-population size- small more vulnerable
105
What are the extrinsic factors in species vulnerability?
1- non-anthropogenic(not directly caused by humans)
| 2- anthropogenic (directly caused by humans
106
What the two extrinsic non-anthropogenic factors in species vulnerability?
Dfn- stochasticity- random or not predictable
1- environmental stochasticity
(Eg hurricanes)
2-demographic stochasticity
(Eg. Unbalanced age sex classes)
107
What re the anthropogenic extrinsic factors in species vulnerability?
```
-Habitat loss
Logging
Agriculture
Anthropogenic fires
Most immediate threat
```
- hunting pressure
Bushmeat and subsistence
108
What are the major threats to primate populations?
1- habitat destruction
2- hunting for food
3-Live trade (entertainment, pets, parts- medicinal or ornamental and research)
109
What it the immediate threat to primate populations?
Human population growth
110
What were the 5 mass extinctions so far?
```
Ordovican
Devonian
Permian
Triassic
Cretaceous
```
111
Extinction is part if the evolutionary process. What is concerning about the possible 6th mass extinction?
1- humans are creating it at a fast rate
| 2-after mass extinction it takes 10 million years for prior diversity levels to be attained
112
How are humans creating the 6th mass extinction?
- Human population and habitat destruction
- pollution
- global climate change
- Over hunting
113
How would the 6th mass extinction differ from previous mass extinctions?
- causes human induced
- rate is possibly greater
- possible breadth of taxonomic groups affected
- it can be stopped or slowed down
114
What can be done to stop the next mass extinction?
-economic incentive (ecotourism)
-habitat protection (with enforcement)
-education to producers and prospective markets ( consumers of bushmeat in Europe, pet owners)
-end illegal wildlife trafficking
- create breeding programs for endangered species
-conservation research
Release of ex captives into the world
Human population control
115
Why is the release of ex captives back into the wild complex and controversial ?
```
Potential risks:
Huge expense(time, energy, money)
Ex - captives may not survive
Disease transmission into the wild
Conflict with wild populations (ex. Chimps )
```
116
Whay is primate conservation so fraught with difficulties
- intrinsic factors related to primates
- often occur in developing countries where human needs conflict with primate needs
- issues of educating and instilling "intrinsic value"
- some countries often have little political will or resources to do anything
117
What is trichromatic or trichromocy?
When an organism's retina Contains 3 types of colour receptors (cone cells) with different absorption spectra. - colour vision - each contain photopigment called opsin
Cones - see in daylight
Rods- night vision
118
What is dichromatic vision?
Organism only has two receptor types (light sensitive cells in retina) used in color vision- having only two gives limited color vision giving ability to see only one or two colors
119
What is aquity
Sharpness - in this case sharp vision
120
What are the primates closest relatives?
Dermoptera- flying lemurs
Scandentia- tree shrews
- pintailed tree shrew
121
What is chromatic distortion?
Inability of different wavelengths of light to be focused at the aame convergence point due to differential refraction by the lens
122
Is trichromacy found in tree shrews?
No. Only in primates
123
What adaptations further increase acuity in primates?
Increase cone density
-invention of fovea packed with cones (bigger eyes)
New type of neural pathway from cones to brain
Greater spatial resolution to see fine detail
124
What is the greatest standing hypothesis as to why primates have trichromatic vision?
The need to find ripe colorful fruit
125
In new world monkeys which primates have trichromatic and dichromatic vision?
Capuchins- females can have trichrom. Vision and can pass it to male offspring as it passes down from mother
All male primates colorblind except howlers and owl monkeys - both males and female howlers have tri. Vision - larger than other owm and can fall back on leaves like owm.
Smaller nwm- smaller and fall back on insects when food scarce- dichromaticy is better for finding bugs that why not all nwm are trichromatic
126
In old world monkeys and trichromatic vision?
Owm- catarrhines - larger can fall back on leaves when food scarce
Tri. Vision first for food- secondly, socialization- owm more colourful traits
127
What is a disadvantage of tri vision??
Color adds level of confusion - disadvantage to some primates
128
Summarize the evolutionary context of tri and di vision
- acuity adaptation shifts from uv to blue early on( somewhere between primates and tree shrews)
- higher acuity in primates
- polymorphic and routine trichromacy
- variable routine Trichromats- humans
Anth311
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