1
Q
Fungi are _______(cells never have more than one flagellum)
More specifically, they are ________(the single flagellum is always located at the posterior end of the cell)
A
Unikonts
Opisthokonts
2
Q
The common ancestor of the opisthokonts was likely _______ and _______.
A
unicellular and flagellated
3
Q
Evolutionist believe the common ancestor of opisthokonts was unicellular, which suggests __________ evolved in fungi and animals independently.
A
multicellularity
4
Q
Evolutionists believe fungi arose around ______ mya.
A
460
5
Q
For nutrition, all fungi are __________.
A
absorptive heterotrophs
-more specifically, absoptive chemotrophs
6
Q
Define absorptive heterotroph
A
A feeding strategy where an organism absorbs small organic compounds from enviroment and uses them for both energy and carbon source.
7
Q
Many fungi secrete ________ into the environment to break down large organic molecules into small molecules that they can absorb.
A
enzymes
8
Q
What 3 types of fungi exist and what do each absorb?
A
- Decomposers - break down dead organic matter (e.g. animal flesh, fruit, plant cellulose or lignin…) and absorb the products
- Parasits/pathogens - absorb small organic molecules from living cells
- Mutualists - absorb small organic molecules from living host, BUT also do something positive for the host
9
Q
Fungal cells have cell walls that include the molecule _______.
A
chitin - a fibrous polysaccharide
10
Q
What are the 2 major body forms of fungi?
A
- Unicellular fungi (yeasts) - unicellularity seems to have evolved several times in fungi (the common ancestor of the fungi was multicellular)
- Multicellular fungi - made of many tubular filaments called hyphae, which form a mass called mycelium
11
Q
The common ancestor of the fungi was _____cellular.
A
multi
12
Q
Hyphae forms a mass called _______.
A
mycelium
13
Q
What are the two different forms of hyphae?
A
- Some hyphae are septate – the cells are separated by incomplete cross-walls called septae. Pores in the septae are pretty large, and sometimes allow nuclei to move from cell to cell.
- Some hyphae have no septae – these are known as coenocytic fungi. They basically consist of one large cell with many nuclei.
14
Q
Septate hyphae contain ______, or cross wall that separate nuclei.
A
septae
15
Q
Coenocytic are one large cell with many _______.
A
nuclei
16
Q
The production of haploid ________ is important to most fungi.
A
nuclei
17
Q
Unicellular fungi may reproduce asexually via ______ (simple
“fission”, or sometimes “budding”)
A
mitosis
18
Q
Multicellular fungi may reproduce asexually by simply ________ into several parts; each part continues growing.
A
breaking
19
Q
Sexual reproduction in fungi starts with __________, when two haploid fungi fuse.
A
karyogamy
20
Q
Decomposers play an important role in the environment by:
A
- Getting rid of dead organisms
- Helps form the soil
- Recycles minerals and other nutrients (e.g. fungi respire CO2 into atmosphere)
21
Q
Some hyphae produce __________, projections that press into plant cells without breaking through the plasma membranes
A
haustoria
22
Q
What are mycorhizae fungi?
A
Fungi that interact with plant roots; fungal hyphae form huge surface area of rootlike structure that provides water and minerals to plant, and plant provides photosynthate.
23
Q
What are the two types oif mycorhizae?
A
- Ectomycorhizae - fungal hyphae wrap around the plant roots but do not penetrate plant cells
- Arbuscular - fungal hyphae penetrate into the root and enter the cell walls
24
Q
Mycorhizae are essential for almost all _______ plants.
A
vascular
25
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ fungi live in the above-ground parts of plants.
Endophytic
- these may be commensals or mutualists; exact relationship to host plant often not known
26
Lichens are stable symbioses formed by a ________ + a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
a fungus + a photosynthetic organism (a cyanobacterium or green alga, or both)
27
What are good indicators for air pollution since they can't get rid of heavy metals and other toxins they absorb?
Lichens
28
Lichens can reproduce asexually by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, or by producing \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_- a few photosynthetic cells bound by fungal hyphae
fragmentation
## Footnote
**soredia**
29
What are some characteristis of chytrids?
- ALL aquatic
- can be unicellular/multicellular
- decomposers, parasites, and mutalists
30
What are some characterists of zygomycetes?
- ALL terrestrail (moist places)
- some decomposers, parasits or commensals
- hyphae are **coenocytic**
31
When there is lots of food, zygomycetes reproduce \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
asexually
-hyphae form sporangia and make **spores** by mitosis
32
When food is scarce, zytomycetes reproduce \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
sexually
33
Describe sexual reproduction in zygomycetes
1. Hyphae of two mating types grow towards each other
2. Form gametangia which fuse to make zygosporangium (n+n)
3. Haploid gamete nuclei in the zygosporangium fuse (**karyogamy**)
4. Haploid sexual **spores** are released
34
80% of all known plant species form mutualistic symbioses with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
glomeromycetes
35
Almost all _________ are mutualistic symbionts of plants, forming arbuscular mycorhizae
glomeromycetes
36
What two synapomorphies link ascomycetes and basidiomycetes?
1. ALL have **septate** hyphae
2. They have a **dikaryon** stage
37
What is a dikaryon stage?
A stage after plasmogamy and before karyogamy, where **two** (and only two) genetically different **haploid nuclei coexist** in each hyphal cell
38
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_are also known as "sac fungi", since they form small sacs (asci; singular ascus) in which meiosis occurs to produce ascospores.
Ascomycetes
39
For ascomycetes, asexual reproduction happens by the formation of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
conidia (haploid spores)
40
What gives some mold their color?
conidia
41
For ascomycetes, sexual reproduction happens when ____________ which results in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
haploid hyphae fuse (plasmogamy)
8 haploid ascospores
42
What are ascocarps?
The **fruiting bodies** of some multicellular ascomycetes
43
Penicillin is produced from what ascomycetes fungus?
The green mold **Penicillium**
44
Yeasts (unicellular fungus) reproduce asexually by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
budding
45
For ascomycetes, describe sexual reproduction
1. Cells of different mating types fuse
2. Zygote nucleus undergoes meiosis to form **ascospores**
3. The whole cell is the **ascus**
46
What type of fungi do we typically think of as mushrooms?
basidiomycetes
47
Describe reproduction in basidiomycetes
ONLY reproduce **sexually**
1. Haploid hyphae fuse (plasmogamy)
2. Dikaryotic hyphae form a fruiting body (basidiocarp), which bears many basidia
3. **Karyogamy** occurs, making a single diploid nucleus in each basidium; this undergoes meiosis, making **4 haploid** cells, each of which becomes a **basidiospore**
48
In contrast to plants and fungi, animals cells lack a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Cell wall
49
Animals are heterotrophsby \_\_\_\_\_\_\_, fungi are heterotrophs by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
ingestion
absorption
50
What is the significance of a short-lived diploid state in fungi?
Generate genetic **variation**
51
Which are two possible relationships between plants and fungi?
1. Plants depend on fungi as mutualistic symbionts
2. Plants are harmed by fungal pathogens
52
Gastrulation is the process that directly forms the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
primary germ layers
53
The earliest ancestors of about 50% of all extant animal phyla can be traced back to the _____ explosion.
Cambrian
54
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are sister-taxon to the animals.
choanoflagellates
55
What is the key difference between a coelom and a pseudocoelom?
- Coelom is **completely lined** with **mesoderm** tissueand
- Pseudocoelom **IS NOT** completely lined by mesoderm layer
56
Which feature of deuterostome development explains the formation of identical human twins?
Deuterostomes have **indeterminate** development
57
Cnidarians have a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which is the digestive compartment of cnidarians.
Gastrovascular cavity
58
The animal phylum most like the protists that gave rise to the animal kingdom is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Porifera (sponges)
59
Choanoflagellates are _________ feeders
suspension
60
Describe the morphology of choanoflagellates.
Cells with **one flagellum**, surrounded by a **ring of microvilli**
61
Multicellularity evolved in _______ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**Fungi** and **animals**
62
How did multicellularity arise in the common ancestor of the animals?
The evoloution of:
**Cell adhesion proteins-** proteins that allowed cells to stick together
**Cell junctions**
**Cell signalling pathways**- cell communication
63
What are cadherins?
**Cell adhesion proteins** found in **ALL** animals.
64
Animals are a ____________ taxon
monophyletic
65
What do animals cells have to choanoflagellates do not which allows for cell ahesion (multicellularity)?
**Cytoplasmic cadherin domain (CCD)**
66
What synapomorphies of the animals differentiate them from choanoflagellates and other eukaryotes?
1. Unique **cell junctions**
2. **Extracellular matrix** molecules (collagen)
3. **Cell ahesion** molecules (CCD-cadherin)
4. Cell **signaling pathways**
67
What are some features of animals?
1. ALL **multicellular**
2. All **chemohetertrophs**
3. All digest food **internally**
4. Specialized cells for electical signals (**nerve**) and contract (**muscle**)
5. Have **Hox genes** - control patterning of embryo
68
How can we categorize animal diversity?
1. **Body symmetry** - radial or bilateral
2. **Cleavage patterns** - radial or spiral
3. Number of embryonic **tissue layers**
4. Fate of **blastopore**
5. Body **cavities**
69
Bilateral symmetry is associated with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, a brain.
**cephilization**
70
Radially symmetrical animals tend to be \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**sessile**
71
If only two embryonic tissue layers (ectoderm and endoderm) are formed, the animal is called a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
If a 3rd layer (the mesoderm) is formed between the other two, the animal is called a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**diploblast**
**triploblast**
72
Compare radial cleavage and spiral cleavage
**Radial** - all divisions are **parallel/perpendicualr** to AV axis
**Spiral** - Starting from 3rd division, all divisions are **slightly off-**parallel/perpendicular from AV axis
73
Radial cleavage is associated with _______________ development.
**Indeterminate**
Each cell in 2 and 4 cell stage **can develop** into **complete organism** (twins)
74
Spiral cleavage is associated with ____________ development.
**determinate**
Each cell in 2 and 4 cell stage is **determined** for **specific** function
75
The zygote undergoes cleavage to form the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**blastula**
76
The hollow space inside the blastula is called the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**blastocoel**
77
When cells from the outside of the blastula move into the blastocoel, this is called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
gastrulation
78
The endoderm surrounds a space called the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, and connects
to the outside via the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**archenteron**
**blastopore**
79
In \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, the blastopore becomes the mouth.
**Protostomes** (mouth first)
80
In \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, the blastopore becomes the anus.
**deuterostomes** (mouth second)
81
What are the 3 types of body cavities in animals (in addition to the gut)?
**acoelomate**: no fluid-filled cavity - Full of mesoderm
**pseudocoelomate**: there is a fluid-filled cavity between gut and ectoderm... but it is **not completely lined** by mesodermal tissue
**coelomate**: there is a fluid-filled cavity between gut and ectoderm... and it is **completely lined** by mesodermal tissue called peritoneum
82
Protostome development is correlated with ________ cleavage.
Spiral (determinate)
83
Deuterostome development is correlated with __________ cleavage.
Radial (indeterminate)
84
For protostomes, the coelom is formed by the splitting of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
mesoderm
85
For deuterostomes, the coelom is formed from folds of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
archenteron
86
Compare direct and indirect development
**Direct development:**
zygote → embryo → juvenile → adult
**Indirect development:**
zygote → embryo → _larva_ → juvenile → adult
87
What is a larva stage?
Stage where organism looks very different than juvenile/adult stage and undergoes **metamorphosis**
88
For animals that are sessile as adults, dispersal usually takes place in the ________ stage.
larval
89
Vertebrates are a subgroup of the phylum \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Chordata
90
Animals in the clade Bilateria are __________ symmetirical \_\_\_\_\_\_blasts.
bilaterally
## Footnote
**triploblasts**
91
What are 5 features of sponges?
* **Asymmetric** (neither radial nor bilateral)
* no true tissue layers (so neither diplo nor triploblastic)
* no digestive system
* no nerves
* no muscles
92
Compare unitary and colonial animals
**Unitary** - one individual (humans, birds)
**Colonial** - adult is composed of many "individual animals" that function together
93
What are the 3 cell layers for Porifera (sponges)?
1. Outer layer - **epidermis** (pores)
2. Middle layer - **mesohyl** (spicules + spongin)
3. Inner layer - **choanocytes** (look like choanoflagellates)
94
Porifera are __________ feeders.
suspension
95
The cnidarians and ctenophores are \_\_\_\_blastic.
diploblastic
96
What are 4 features of Cnidaria (jellyfish)?
* Radially symmetrical diploblasts
* Have a gut (NO anus)
* Have contractile cells
* Have nerves
97
Cnidaria come in two body types: _______ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**polyp** and **medusa**
98
In Cnidaria, the ectoderm forms the _________ and the endoderm forms the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**epidermis**
**gastrodermis**
99
Cnidaria catches prey using \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, the most common of which is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**cnidae**
**nematocyst**
100
In species with both polyp and medusae, the polyp reproduces \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, and the medusa \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**asexually**
**sexually**
101
Cnidarians usually have a _______ larval stage
planula
102
The two major clades of cnidarians are:
1. **Medusozoans** - have medusa and polyp in life cycle
2. **Anthozoans** - only a polyp in life cycle
103
A type of Anthozoan is a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
coral
104
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ have mutualistic symbiosis with dinoflagellates
Corals
105
In corals, warming and stress can lead to the expulsion of _____________ (coral bleaching)
dinoflagellates
106
Ctenophora are _________ symmetrical diploblasts.
radially
107
Ctenophora swim using \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which are arranged in 8 rows (comb rows)
Ctenes
108
Bilaterians are ___________ symmetrical triploblasts and have a _________ gut.
**bilaterally**
**complete**
109
Why do triploblasts have to increase their Surface Area to Volume ratio?
They have a middle tissue layer (**mesoderm**) which needs to perform **gas exchange**.
110
What are the 3 clades of Bilaterians?
1. Deuterostomia
2. Lophotrochozoa
3. Ecdysozoa
111
The diagnostic feature of Chondrichthyes is \_\_\_\_\_.
an endoskeleton of calcified **cartilage**
112
The Lophotrochozoa + Ecdysozoa is often called the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Protostomes
113
As hominins have evolved, sexual dimorphism has significantly \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
reduced
114
What are the 3 main groups of mammals?
1. **Monotremes** - egg-laying
2. **Marsupials** - pouch
3. **Eutherians** - Placenta
115
Members of the Lophotrochozoa clade have either ________________ or \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
a **lophophore** or a **trochophore larva**
| (but some have neither)
116
What is trochophore larva?
Tiny planktonic larval stage that has a **band of cilia**
117
What is a lophophore?
Ring of **ciliated** hollow tentacles used for **feeding/gas exchange.**
118
What are key features of Platyhelminthes (flatworms)?
- **Unitary** and **acoelomate**
- **Incomplete** guts
- No organs for gas exchange so **High SA/vol ratio**
119
What are some key features of planarians (most common flatworm)?
- A **brain** and sensory structures
- **Regeneration**
120
What are the two parasitic flatworms?
1. **Trematodes** - internal parasite of vertebrates
2. **Tapeworms** - internal parasite of vertebrates
121
A type of trematode (parasitic flatworm) is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which causes schistosomiasis (liver damage).
**Schistosoma**
2 larval stages, the second of which infects mammals
122
Tapeworms hold on to host with a _______ and most of their body chain is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**scolex**
**proglottids** (egg, sperm)
123
Syndermata are also know as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Rotifers
124
What are some key features of rotifers?
- **Unitary** and **pseudocoelomate**
- Have **corona** (crown of cilia)
- Have **mastax** to chew up food
- Can lose 99.5% body water and become **cryptobiotic** (inactive dormat state)
125
Most rotifers undergo \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**cyclical parthenogenesis** (diploid eggs that **develop without fertilization**)
126
What is cyclical parthenogensis?
**Asexual** reproduction when conditions are good - females make diploid eggs that can **develop without fertilization**
Under bad conditions, they reproduce **sexually** to produce zygote
127
Bdelloid rotifers are all _______ due to parthenogensis.
females
128
What are some key features of Ectoprocts?
- **Colonial** and **coelomate**
- Use a **lophophore** for suspension feeding/gas exchange
- Larvae undergoes **metamorphoses** and forms first member of colony which undergoes **asexual** reproduction
129
What are some key features of Brachiopods?
- **Unitary** and **coelomate**
- Use **lophophore** for suspension feeding/gas exchange
- Common in **Paleozoic**
130
What are some key features of molluscs?
- **Unitary** and **coelomate**
- **3 body regions** (foot, visceral mass, mantle)
- **mantle cavity** (space lined by mantle)
- **radula** (teeth)
131
What are the 3 body regions of molluscs?
1. **Foot** - movement
2. **Visceral mass** - internal **organs** including **complete gut**
3. **Mantle** - secretes shell
132
Radula (teeth) in molluscs can be used for _______ or \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**scraping**
**stabbing** - secretes conotoxins
133
Disulfide bridges are made from \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
cysteine
134
Conotoxins are __________ of 10-30 amino acids that have at least one _______ bridge. They work to paralyze prey.
polypeptides
disulfide
135
The conotoxin _________ binds to ion channels involved in sensitivity to pain. A synthetic form was made that is 1000 stronger than morphine.
ziconotide
136
Most molluscs have a life cycle that includes a ____________ larval stage.
trochophore
137
What are the 4 major groups of molluscs?
1. **Chitons** - omnivores, strong radula
2. **Gastropods** (snails) - one shell (snails) or no shell (slugs)
3. **Bivalves** - two shells with hinge in between
4. **Cephalopods** (squids, octopus) - Jet propulsion by shooting water out of a siphon
138
What are some features of annelids?
- **unitary** and **coelomate**
- complete guts
- trochophore larvae
- **segmented**
139
Each segment of annelids has its own _____________ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**coelomic cavity** and **brain**
140
2 large clades of annelids are:
1. **Errantians** - move around via **parapodium** made of chaetae
2. **Sedentarians** - earthworms and leeches
141
Parapodia is used for ___________ and helps increase \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
movement
SA-V ratio
142
What is a clitellum?
**Reproductive** structure in **earthworms** and **leeches**.
143
The Ecdysozoa are sister taxa to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Together, they are called the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Lophotrochozoa
protostomes
144
What phyla contains over 1,000,000 described species (~75% of ALL described animal species)?
Arthropods
145
The bodies of all ecdysozoans are covered with an extracellular layer called the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
cuticle
146
What are some key features of nematodes (roundworms)?
- **unitary** and **pseudocoelomate**
- Live virtually anywhere
- **Complete gut**
147
What is a nematode species that is an extremely important model system in developmental biology? What fixed number of somatic cells do adults of this species have?
**Caenorhabditis** **elegans**
**959** somatic cells
148
What phylum has millions of undescribed parasite species?
Nematodes (round worms)
149
What nematode animal parasite is used to treat Crohn's disease and colitis?
Trichurus suis (whipworm)
150
Arthropods have a pair of _________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ on each segment.
jointed appendages
151
What are 3 different tasks an arthropod can use its joined appendages for?
1. Walking/swimming
2. Feeding
3. Gas exchange
152
Early arthropods had segments that were ________ to one another. Modern arthropods have segments that are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
similar
different (specialized for various tasks)
153
Arthropods have an _______ circulatory system in which the blood is not always in a vessel.
open
154
What are the 3 main clades of arthropods?
1. chelicerates
2. myriapods
3. pancrustaceans
155
What are the 2 body regions of chelicerates and how many pairs of walking legs do they have?
**cephalothorax** and **abdomen**
## Footnote
**4 pairs**
156
What are 2 types of appendages used for feeding by chelicerates?
**chelicerae** - grab food, inject poison
**pedipalps** - sense food, grab food
157
What are 3 phyla of chelicerates?
1. **Pycnogonids** (sea spiders) - male paternal care
2. **Horseshoe crabs** - "living fossils"
3. **Arachnids**
158
What are the 2 body regions of myriapods (ceni/millipedes)?
**Head** (with pair of antennae) and **long trunk**
159
The pancrustacean clade includes:
crustaceans + insects
160
What 3 body regions do crustaceans have?
**Head**, **thorax**, and **abdomen**
161
Crustaceans have a ________ larval stage
**nauplius** (not much different from juvenile/adult)
162
Insects have a unique gas exchange system in which spiracles on the thorax open into long, narrow tubes called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
trachea
163
For insects, the thorax has _______ pairs of walking legs and the abdomen has no ________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
3
jointed appendages
164
Most insects have 2 pairs of wings which are large extensions of _________ on the thorax.
cuticle
165
How did insect flight affect diversification?
A **burst** of diversification of both **insects** and **angiosperms**.
166
Compare complete vs incomplete metamorphosis.
**Complete** - larva looks **very different** from juvenile/adult
**Incomplete** - at every molt, larval stages look like **small adults**
167
Deuterostomes are sister taxon to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
protostomes (lophotrochozoa + ecdysozoa)
168
All deuterostomes are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
coelomate
169
What are the 3 body parts of a hemichordate? What do they use their pharyngeal slits for?
**Proboscis**, **collar**, and **trunk**
Gas-exchange surface for respiration
170
Echinoderm (sea star) larvae have ________ symmetry but adults have ________ symmetry.
bilateral
pentaradial
171
Echinoderms have water vascular system that they use for:
- locomotion
- feeding
- gas exchange (respiration)
172
5 phyla of echinoderms are:
1. **Crinoids** - oldest, suspension feeders
2. **Sea stars** - motile predators
3. **Brittle stars** - motile
4. **Sea urchins** - motile, large spikes
5. **Sea cucumbers** - motile, suspension-feeders
173
Chordates are all _________ symmetrical, coelomate, and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
bilaterally
segmented
174
What are 4 key traits that define chordates?
1. **Notochord**
2. Dorsal, hollow **nerve cord**
3. **pharyngeal slits**
4. muscular, **post-anal** **tail**
175
What are the 3 things that can happen to the notochord?
1. **Cephalochordates** have it their whole lives
2. **Urochordates** lose it at metamorphosis
3. For **Vertebrates**, it becomes part of the vertebral column
176
What are the two "invertebrate" groups within the chordates?
**Cephalochordates** and **Urochordates**
177
Cephalochordate (lancelets) are known as ______ chordates.
178
Urochordates (tail chordates) only have those key chordate traits in the _______ stage.
larval
179
Urochordates secrete an exoskeleton of cellulose (a "tunic") are are often called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
tunicates
180
What are the 3 groups of urochordates?
1. **Ascidians** (sea squirts)
2. **Thaliaceans** (giant condoms)
3. **Larvaceans** - never metamorphosis
181
What is the correct order of events in fungal sexual reproduction?
plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis, germination
182
Hyphae with two nuclei per cell are called \_\_\_\_\_.
dikaryotic
183
During the development of most animals, cleavage leads to a _________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
multicellular blastula
184
Name the embryonic stages in the order that they develop?
zygote, blastula, gastrula, larva
185
All animals with bilateral symmetry have __________ germ layer(s).
3
186
All animals with radial symmetry have __________ germ layer(s).
2
187
The zygotes of many protostomes undergo __________ cleavage and __________ cleavage.
spiral...determinate
188
An animal with a true coelom that has __________ cleavage must be a(n) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
radial....deuterostome
189
Some species of rotifers undergo parthenogenesis, which means that \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**females ONLY** that produce more females
190
Molting is also called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
ectysis
191
What are some key characteristics of vertebrates?
- A jointed dorsal **vertebral column** surrounds dorsal nerve chord
- **Hox genes**
- A **skull**
192
Vertebrates have at least _______ copies of Hox genes.
2
\*Usually have more
193
What are the 2 cyclostomes (jawless fishes)?
1. **Hagfish** - cartilagenous skeleton/skull, secrete **slime** for defense
2. **Lamprey** - cartilagenous skeleton/skull, larvae called **ammocoetes**
\*Both have tooth-like structure made of **keratin**
194
What are the key features of gnathostomes?
- **jaws**
- **mineralized skeleton**
- Paired **pectoral/pelvic** fins
195
Jaws evolved from skeletal ______ that supported the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_around the slits.
arches
pharynx
196
What are the 3 clades of Gnathostomes?
1. **Chondrichthyans** (sharks, rays)
2. **Actinopterygiians** (ray-finned fishes)
3. **Lobe-fins**
197
Chondrichthyans are known as __________ fishes since their skeltons contain no bone.
cartilagenous
198
For actinopterygians, outgrowths of the gut evolved into __________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ in ray finned fishes and __________ in other bony vertebrates.
swim bladders
lungs
199
For actinoptergians, ________ covers the gills.
operculum
200
A type of lobe-fin called __________ (Actinistia) was thought to be extinct but living specimens were found in 1938.
coelocanths
201
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (Dipnoi) have lungs and gills but only use the ________ for breathing.
Lungfishes
lungs
202
In what group of animals did new bones in the pectoral/pelvic fins first appear that allowed it to support itself in shallow water?
Lobe-fins
203
The bones in the pectoral/pelvic fins eventually become more complex and formed limbs with ________ used for walking/running.
digits
204
What are some traits of tetrapods?
- a **neck**
- a **pelvic girdle**
- **pharyneal slits** used for functions OTHER than respiration
205
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a recently-discovered fossil that share traits of both lob-finned fishes and tetrapods.
Tiktaalik
206
What are the two life phases of amphibians?
**aquatic larva** - lacks limbs, post-anal tail, gills
**adult** - has limbs, lungs, no tail
207
Why are amphibians confined to moist habitats?
- **Aquatic larvae**
- Eggs **DO NOT have a shell**
- Most adults use both **lungs** and **diffusion**
208
What are the 3 clades of amphibians?
1. **Salamanders**
2. **Anurans** (frogs/toads)
3. **Caecilians** (wormlike, lost limbs)
209
Amniotes have an _________ egg and include which two phlya?
**amniotic** - embryo surrounded by **4 membranes and shell**
**reptillia** and **mammals**
210
What are the 4 membranes that amniotic eggs have?
1. **Amnion** - protects embryo
2. **Allantois** - gas exchange, waste
3. **Yolk sac** - nutrients
4. **Chorion** - gas exchange
211
Amniotes can be fully terrestrial because the amniotic egg develops in an ___________ environment.
aqueous
212
What are 2 key features of amniotes?
1. **Amniotic** egg
2. **Negative pressure** lung ventilation
213
Reptiles have an outer layer of skin that forms _________ and contain the protein \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
scales
keratin
214
What are 3 key features of reptiles?
1. **Scales** (kertain)
2. **Internal fertilization** (oviparity or ovoviviparity)
3. **Exothermic**
215
Compare oviparity and ovoviviparity.
**oviparity** - deposit amniotic egg on land
**ovoviviparity** - egg develops in mother, gives birth to juveniles
216
What are the 3 clades of living reptiles?
1. Turtles
2. Archosaurs
3. Lepidosaurs (overlapping scales)
217
What are the 2 groups of lepidosaurs (overlapping scales)?
1. **Tuataras** - New Zealand ONLY
2. **Squamates** (lizards, snakes, amphisbaenians)
218
What are the 2 groups of Archosaurs?
1. Crocodilians
2. Birds (therapods)
219
What are 5 key features of therapods (birds)?
1. Bipedal
2. Furcula
3. Hollow bones
4. Three fingered limbs
5. Feathers (insulation)
220
What are the 2 main groups of birds?
**Paleognaths** - flighless birds
## Footnote
**Neognaths**
221
200 mya one lineage of ________ split off to form a clade called mammals.
synapsids
222
What are 5 key features of animals?
1. **Sweat** Glands
2. **Mammary** glands
3. **Hair**
4. **Differentiated** teeth
5. **Bones** in **middle ear**
223
Which of the following chordate characteristics contributes most to the formation of mammal's ears?
pharyngeal slits/clefts
224
A __________ is a chordate but not a vertebrate.
lancelet (cephalochordate)
225
Which of the following chordate characteristics contributes most to suspension-feeding devices in many invertebrate chordates?
pharyngeal slits/clefts
226
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are jawless invertebrae chordates and __________ are jawless vertebrae chordates.
Lancelet
Lamprey
227
What is the correct order of probable ancestors of modern humans from the earliest to the most recent?
Sahelanthropus, Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, Paranthropus, Homo
228
What is a common species and traits of monotremes?
**platypus**
- lay eggs
- no placenta
- mammary glands but NO nipples
- sprawling orientation
229
What are some key traits of primates?
- limbs with **grasping hands and feet** (except humans don't have a thumb on their feet)
- flat face, eyes forward
230
Anthropoids include what two monkey groups?
Old Wolrd - NO prehinsile tail, ground-dwelling
New World - **prehensile** tails and **arboreal** (tree dwelling)
231
What was one key trait that evolved in the common ancestor of hominins?
bipedal locomotion
232
Members of the ______ genus have larger brains and less elongated faces than their hominin relatives.
Homo
233
The earliest species of the genus Homo is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
habilis
234
"Ardi" is in the genus \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
"Lucy" is in the genus Homo \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Sahelanthropus
Australopithecus
235
For the genus Homo, as brain size \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, jaw size \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
increases, decreased
236
Homo sapiens evolved in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Africa
Biology 211
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