Final Exam

Question 1

How and why are motor skills separated?

Answer 1

By levels. To learn an action, explore different movements, and refine neuromotor processes

Action: goal directed behaviors; skills
Movement: specific pattern of motion to complete an action goal
Neuromotor processes: the physiological mechanism that produces movement

Question 2

What are the different categories of motor skills?

Answer 2

Gross: large, less precision
Fine: small muscles, control

Discrete: clear beginning and end
Continuous: no clear end or beginning (jog)
Serial: sequence of discrete actions in a specific order

Open: environment is unpredictable
Closed: environment is stable

Question 3

What is reaction time and its subcomponents?

Answer 3

time from the stimulus onset to the start of movement

movement time: start of movement to the end
response time: reaction + mvoement time

Question 4

What are the types of reaction time

Answer 4

Simple: one signal and one response
Choice: more than one signal and each has its own response
Discrimination: multiple signal, one response

Question 5

Why is measuring reaction time important? What are the different types of measurement error

Answer 5

Helps us understand cognitive processing demands, diagnosing conditions, etc.

Absolute: accuracy
Constant: directional bias
Variable: consistency/variability
Radial: 2D
RMSE: continuous tracking

Question 6

What is the difference between kinematics and kinetics?

Answer 6

Kinematics is motion without force

Kinetics is force that causes motion

Question 7

What is EMG, EEG, and TMS?

Answer 7

EMG/electromyography- measures muscle electrical activity

EEG/electroencephalography- neural electrical activity

TMS/transcranial magnetic stimulation- uses magnetic pulses to activate or inhibit specific brain regions

Question 8

What is motor ability vs skill?

Answer 8

trait or capacity that underlies performance of different motor skills. Not necessarily learned

a skill is learned that requires voluntary control and is goal oriented

Question 9

General Motor Ability vs. Specificity of Motor Ability Hypothesis?

Answer 9

General: individuals have a single broad, underlying motor ability, so if you are good at one thing, you are likely good at another

Specificity/l motor abilities are independent and high performance does not predict performance on another

Question 10

Two forms of balance

Answer 10

Independent and distinct forms..

Static: ability to maintain postural ability while the body is stationary

Dynamic: the ability to maintain stability while in motion or when the base of support or center of mass is changing

Question 11

What are the parts of a neuron?

Answer 11

Dendrites: branch like extension that receive information

Cell body: nucleus, integrates signals

Axon: long fiber that transmits signals

Myelin: fatty insulation made by glial cells

Synapse: junction where one neuron talks to another

Neuromuscular junction: synapse between motor neuron and muscle fiber

Question 12

What are the 3 types of neurons?

Answer 12

sensory/afferent: carries information to CNS

motor/efferent: carries commands to muscles

interneurons: connect neurons in CNS

Question 13

Cerebrum…pyramidal cells, cortical areas, and lobes

Answer 13

Largest part involved in voluntary movement, perception, and consciousness

pyramidal cells: primary output neurons of the motor cortex, axons from major descending pathways necessary for voluntary control

cortical areas: primary motor, somatosensory, premotor, and supplementary motor area

lobes: frontal, temporal, occipital, parietal

Question 14

Parts of the diencephalon

Answer 14

Thalamus- sensory relay
Hypothalamus- regulates autonomic function

Question 15

parts of the brainsetsm

Answer 15

pons- breathing
medulla- basic life functions
reticular formation- arousal

Question 16

Cerebellum and efference copy?

Answer 16

key in movement coordiantion, timing, and balance

efference copy is the internal copy of motor command sent to this spot, used to compare intended vs actual movement to create smooth coordination action

Question 17

Subcortical structures

Answer 17

basal ganglia= group of nuclei (caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, and substantia nigra)

movement initiation, action selection, habits
Parkinsons’ caused by dopamine loss in the substantia nigra

Question 18

How is gray matter organized in the spinal cord

Answer 18

dorsal horns- sensory input
ventral horns- motor neuron/efferent
interneurons- intermediate zones

Question 19

How do neurons work in the spinal cord?

Answer 19

sensory neurons enter dorsal horns, and alpha/gamma motor neurons exit ventral horn to muscles. interneurons are the majority, which allow for integration and reflexes

Question 20

Describe the ascending vs descending tracts

Answer 20

Ascending: dorsal is fast and precise, carrying fine touch. anterolateral is slower, carrying pain, temperature, and crude touch signals

Descending: pyramidal originates at the spianal cord, controlling fine voluntary movements crossing at the medulla. Extrapyramidal is posture, muscle tone, and automatic movements

Question 21

What is a motor unit?

Answer 21

alpha motor neuron with all the muscle fibers it innervates. Functional unit of the neuromuscular system. All fibers in a motor unit contract simultaneously when the neuron fires

Question 22

What is coordiantion?

Answer 22

patterning of body and limb motions relative to the environment and each other. resolves the degrees of freedom problem, shown through angle angle diagrams

Question 23

Open vs Closed Loop Control

Answer 23

Open: no feedback used during movement. Pre-programmed, high speed

Closed: feedback is used during movement to make corrections; executive input

Question 24

Motor program vs. dynamical systems theory

Answer 24

Motor program theory: brain stores GMP that defines movement which are governed by constant invariant features and flexible parameters

Dynamic Systems: movement emerges from the interaction of the individual, task, and environment. Self-organizing

Question 25

Touch and Proprioceptors

Answer 25

Touch Receptors = Mechanoreceptors Muscle Spindles= inside skeletal muscle, detect changes in length and stretch GTO= in tendon near muscle tendon junction, detecting tension and force Joint Receptor=in capsules and ligaments that sense angle, pressure, and acceleration

Question 26

Role of Vestibular System in Coordiantion

Answer 26

balance, postural control, eye movement, and sense of orientation Otolith organs: utricle and saccule detect linear acceleration and head position relative to gravity Semicircular Canals: 3 canals that detect angular acceleration

Question 27

Role of Vision in Coordination

Answer 27

Retina to optic nerve to optic tract to lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. binocular cues allow for depth perception central vision is focused through the fovea for high resolution. peripheral has low resolution nd is sensitive to motion but used for spatial awareness

Question 28

Dorsal and Ventral Visual Stream

Answer 28

Dorsal: where/how controlling movement guidance, location, unconscious Ventral: what? identification, perception, conscious vision

Question 29

What is Fitts Law

Answer 29

speed-accuracy tradeoff in motor skills. As movement time increases, distance increases and target size decreases.

Question 30

Prehension and Phases

Answer 30

the action of reaching for and grasping an object, vision is critical 1. Transport: moving hand toward object 2. Grasp: hand shapes change 3. Object Manipulation:: using the objects

Question 31

Handwriting and motor equivalence

Answer 31

the ability to achieve the same movement outcome using different muscles, limbs, or effectors. Handwriting is not stored as exact muscle instructions, it is a movement template

Question 32

Bimanual Coordination- symmetric vs asymmetrical

Answer 32

Symmetric- both limbs perform the samemovement Asymmetric- each limb performs different movement; more difficult due to the tendency to synchronize limbs. practice reduces coupling and improves independence

Question 33

Locomotion and central pattern generator

Answer 33

...human walking and running are controlled by both spinal networks CPG: neural network in the spinal cord producing rhythmic movement. vision guides correction

Question 34

Action preparation

Answer 34

Time and mental processes the CNS uses to organize movement before it starts. Much of this is measured through reaction time

Question 35

Hicks Law and reaction time types

Answer 35

Describes how reaction time increases as the number of response choices increases Simple- 1 signal, 1 response Choice- many signals, different responses Discrimination- multiple signals but response to only one

Question 36

Stimulus response compatibility

Answer 36

how well the stimulus and the required response naturally match high compatibility- stimulus easily maps to response, faster RT low capatibility- stimulus and response are unnatural, slower RT - stroop effect: classic compatibility effect. say ink color and not the word. interference occurs because the brain automatically processes the meaning of words leading to slower reaction time

Question 37

What factors influence action preparation?

Answer 37

Foreperiod (optimal is 1-4 seconds) Complexity Psychological Refractory Period Fractionated Reaction Time (premotor time, motor time) Postural preparation

Question 38

What is attention? Filter theory, central resource, multiple resource

Answer 38

Limited mental capacity to process information - Filter: attention is a filter and as all input enters, the system filters out information - Central resource: attention is a single pool of effort (Kahnemans model) arousal determines attention - multiple resource: separate pools of attention resources

Question 39

3 allocation rules of Kahneman's Attention model

Answer 39

1. ensure completion of the most important task 2. momentary intentions 3. enduring dispositions

Question 40

What is the dual-task technique

Answer 40

method to measure attention demands of a task. perform primary task and add a secondary task to see how much attention the primary task actually neeeds

Question 41

Components of focus

Answer 41

width and direction

Question 42

Action-Effect Hypothesis

Answer 42

performance is better when attention is directed toward the intended movement effect and not the movement itself

Question 43

Automaticity

Answer 43

a skill becomes so well learned that it requires a lower attentional demand. Shown through decentralization, when processing shifts from central control to distributed control

Question 44

2 types of visual attention

Answer 44

Central: high resolution, identification Peripheral: low resolution, motion, awareness

Question 45

What is working vs. long term memory

Answer 45

WM: short term storage (chunking 7+-2) 20-30 seconds LTM: unlimited and permanent

Question 46

Types of LTM

Answer 46

Procedural: stores how to perform skills Declarative: episodic and semantic/factual

Question 47

Memory processing terms

Answer 47

Encoding: transforming information into a form that can be stored Storage: retaining info over time Consolidation: stabilizing and strengthening memories Retrieval: accessing stored information

Question 48

Explicit vs implicit memory

Answer 48

Explicit: recall, recognition Implicit: actually doing something

Question 49

How do we forget things?

Answer 49

Trace decay: things weaken over time Interference: proactive (old memories interfere) and retroactive (new learning disrupts previously learned)

Question 50

Encoding specificity principle

Answer 50

retrieval is best when context matches the encoding conditions. state dependent learning

Question 51

Performance vs. Learning

Answer 51

performance: observable behavior during practice learning: relatively permanent change in capability to perform a skill

Question 52

Performance Characteristics:

Answer 52

improvement consistency stability persistence (retention) adaptability (transfer) reduced attention

Question 53

Performance Curves

Answer 53

show performance levels over practice trials, not learning. learning must be confirmed with retention or transfer test - linear: improvement at constant rate - neg. accelerating: large improvement early, slow later - positive accelerating: slow improvement early, faster later improvement - S shaped: mix of improvement

Question 54

Performance plateau

Answer 54

temporary period where performance shows no improvement. due to.. - transitional phase in learning - fatigue or lack of motivation - performance measure insensitivity

Question 55

Fitts and Posner Learning Stages

Answer 55

1. Cognitive: high effort and errors 2. Associative: refine movements an correct errors 3. Autonomous: automatic skill

Question 56

Gentile's 2 stages

Answer 56

1. initial: acquire coordination and discrimiante between regulatory and nonregulatory conditions 2. later: goal depends on skill type - Fixation/closed - diversification/open

Question 57

Berstein Stages of Learning

Answer 57

1. Freeze DOF 2. Release DOF 3. Exploit DOF

Question 58

Rate of improvement

Answer 58

power law of practice. improvement is rapid, then slows over time, explaining the negatively accelerating curve

Question 59

What is learning transfer

Answer 59

positive: previous experience helps new skill negative: previous experience interferes with new skill due to physical and mental mismatch (cognitive confusion)

Question 60

Transfer Appropriate (matching) Processing Theory

Answer 60

transfer depends on similar processing demands between skills. mental operations must match

Question 61

Bilateral Transfer

Answer 61

transfer of learning from 1 limb to another due to the generalized motor plan or concept. GMP applies to both sides. Cross-activation leads to dual activation. Corpus callosum transfers information Symmetrical - both limbs transfer equally Asymmetrical - one direction is stronger, dominant transfers more to nondominant

Question 62

What is observed in demonstration?

Answer 62

invariant features or the critical elements that do not change across attempts, like timing, force, sequence. The neural basis for observational learning comes from mirror neurons, which fire when you perform an action and when you observe one

Question 63

Explanatory Theories of Observation Theories

Answer 63

1. Cognitive Mediation: observer transforms what they see into memory codes that guides later action. 2. Perception-Action Coupling: observation directly links visual information to motor control processes without requiring symbolic memory codes. Emphasis on direct perception and what you see is what you do do.

Question 64

Verbal Instruction and Cues

Answer 64

verbal directions complement demonstration when a full demo canno tbe done, the skill is complex, and learners need attention direction functions of verbal directions: direct attention to task-relevant information, simplify complex actions into pieces, emphasize invariant features, and guiding performance.

Question 65

Task Intrinsic vs AFB

Answer 65

Task intrinsic: feedback naturally available to sensory systems AFB: information added to task intrinsic from external systems. informational, reinforcement, and motivation - KP: knowledge of performance - KR: knowledge of results

Question 66

Types of AFB

Answer 66

verbal, video, biofeedback, kinematic, quantitative/qualitative

Question 67

Timing of AFB

Answer 67

Terminal- KP/KR delay (time between movement completion, feedback) and post-KR interval (time after feedback is delivered and before next trial) Concurrent- given during movement but causes guidance effect

Question 68

Frequency of AFB

Answer 68

high frequency helps immediate performance but hurts long term learning. reduced frequency with bandwidths, summaries, or decrease over time. lower frequency helps error detection, self-correction, and better retention

Question 69

Guidance Effect

Answer 69

Too much feedback causes learners to depend on it and stop processing readily available feedback Reduce by... a. Faded Feedback (decrease over time) b. Summary Feedback (after a certain amount of trials) c. Bandwidths (when errors reach a certain amount) delay feedback to encourage internal error detection

Question 70

Performance Variability

Answer 70

natural difference in movement outcomes or patterns across practice attempts. it occurs because learning is exploratory and trial and error based, but variability helps to encourage learning through the Schema theory

Question 71

Types of Practice Schedules ABC

Answer 71

Blocked AAABBBCCC Serial ABC ABC ABC Random ACBCACB

Question 72

Contextual Interference

Answer 72

high levels lead to better retention and transfer than low contextual interference even though performance during practice is worse

Question 73

Performance specificity

Answer 73

performance is best when practice conditions match performance conditions - focus on sensory feedback, environmental context, cognitive demands.

Question 74

especial skills

Answer 74

one that is performed better than rpedicted due to high amounts of specific practice and highly consistent conditions- shooting free throws

Question 75

Overlearning

Answer 75

continuing practice beyond the amount needed to achieve proficiency. leads to improved retention and increased stability, but decreases adaptability, causes boredom, and plateau.

Question 76

Distributed vs Mass Practice

Answer 76

Mass: long sessions, low rest, often more tiring Distributed: shorter sessions, longer rest. better for learning through fatigue reduction and better proessing

Question 77

Complexity and Skill Organization

Answer 77

Complexity is the number of parts. High levels mean that the skill has many parts or requires a lot of effort Organization is how closely those parts are related/interdependent. high organization means that the parts are tightly integrated and hard to separate. low means that the parts can be separated.

Question 78

Whole Practice

Answer 78

low complexity (not many parts) and high organization (they are highly related). the movement flows as one action - continuous task

Question 79

Part Practice

Answer 79

high complexity (many parts) and low organization (not super related), so they can be broken down. Discrete and serial 3 strategies: 1. Fractionization- practicing individual limbs (piano) 2. Segmentation- progressive chaining, linking movement parts 3. Simplification- reduce difficulty while maintaining whole movement structure. sometimes a skill has high organization but complexity is high as well, so the attention approach indicates that they should perform the whole skill but direct attention to a specific component