1
Q
Proto-Indo European
A
- The common ancestor of Indo-European languages - spoken between 4,500 BCE to 2,500 BCE -language spread throughout the european region because of trade -not much written evidence
2
Q
Latin Language
A
-member of the Italic branch of Indo-European languages -language first originated from the Latium region, where Roman civilization first developed -Romance languages were incredibly influenced by latin -latin was spoken in ancient Rome but wasn’t spoken in later times, yet many bibles and books were written in Latin
3
Q
English Language
A
-The english language has been developing for thousands of years and is heavily influenced by German, French, and Latin -60% of the language is latin, 90% of computer and medical terms are greek -lingua franca of the early Medieval age -first it was a germanic language, then in 1066 (Norman Invasion), it became influenced by French -the alphabet is directly derived from Latin
4
Q
Romulus
A
-Twin brother of Remus and son of Mars and Rhea Silvia and apparently the descendant of Aeneas and Latinus, founders of Latium -was left with his twin brother at the hills of Tiber where they were found by Faustulus where a she-wolf was taking care of them -overthrew Amulius and placed Numitor back on the throne and returned to Tiber to establish their own city -first was ruler of Palentine (one of the seven hills of rome) but he killed his brother because he leaped over the walls and became the sole ruler of rome -gave rome a common body of laws and religion -adamant about rome being a place for a multitude of people -essentially was the first to make rome a great city to match her neighbors
5
Q
The Etruscans
A
- their origins are not completely known, most of its culture and history was obliterated or assimilated into Roman culture
- origins located in central Italy between 8th and 3rd century bce (Po River valley and Eturia)
- majory trade power in the mediterranean, but as the Roman civilization grew more powerful, the Etruscans began to weaken because they were being constantly defeated by the Romans
- in 600 BCE they came into Rome and invaded and adopted Roman monarchy– they rule Rome, but they are foreign invaders
- after that, all Roman rulers were estruscan until the establishment of the Republic
- were responsible for the most impressive architecture that Rome had– they constructed the sewer system and Capitolinus Iuppiter temple
- Etruscans were infamous for having independent and prominent women– they drank and dined with their husbands in public!
6
Q
Rhea Silvia
A
- daughter of Numitor, the king of Alba Longa
- made a Vestal virign by Amulius (who expelled Numitor from the throne)
- gave birth to romulus and remus and claimed that she was raped by Mars (livy says that this is either because she wanted the crime to seem less heinous or because she really did believe it)
- thrown into prison after having given birth to her children
- her rape by Mars was a popular subject in Roman art
7
Q
Livy
A
- 64 BCE-12 AD
- Roman historian who wrote Ab Urbe Conidta
- came from one of the wealthiest cities in rome
- was a close acquaintance of Augustus and was perhaps inlfuenced by him in his histroical writings to emphasis some points more than others
8
Q
Ab Urbe Condita
A
- written by Livy between 27 to 9 BCE
- “A History of the City (Rome)”
- covers the history of rome from Aeneas to Augustus’ rule– 142 books and 744 years of history.
- he was influenced by Augusuts to emphasis Roman triumph and heroism to mark the splendor of Augustus’ own reign (Augustus claimed to be a descendant of Romulus and Aeneas)
-
9
Q
The Sabine Women
A
- once rome had become an established city, romulus knew he needed to secure the growing population of his city. to do this, he negotiated with the neighboring sabines unsuccessfully
- Romulur then planned a marvelous festival in rome to attract many women and he encouraged his men to abduct the women while the festival was going on
- he called this festival “the Consualia” and as it took place, he gave his men a signal to go and abduct the women and forced them to be Roman wives
- this lead to outrages in the neighboring cities and rome went to war with the sabines an other tribes– the Antemnates, Crustumini, and Caeninenses all fought agaisnt rome
- at this point, the sabine women intervened. Livy says they ran into the filed with ravaged hair and dishevelled garments and promised they would be wives to the Romans if only the fighting would stope
- naturally, the women are blamed for everything
10
Q
Ovid
A
- a prolific Roman poet, born 43 BCE and died 18 AD
- Author of Metamorphese, Amores, Ars Amatoria, and Fasti
- Exiled by Augustus in 8 CE for unknown reasons (“a poem and a mistake” – he’s quite paradoxical in his poems and a lot of it is very lustful)
- most of his work is incredibly influenced by Virgil and Livy
- his work, like livy, is also influenced by Augustus
- much of his work was considered humurous
11
Q
Amores
A
- a series of poems accounting Ovid’s love affairs with women in Rome
- written around 16 BCE
- a lot of the love affairs dominated by masculinity and the male gaze, as roman ideals believed rape to be okay because it was a symbol of power and masculinity
- often subversive and humorous with contemporary figures and exaggerates common motifs and devices to the point of absurdity.
12
Q
Ars Amatoria
A
- a didactic poem about the art of love written by Ovid
- It teaches basic gentlemanly male and female relationship skills and techniques.
- It was very controversial because Augustus was advocating for the end of adultery by making it a state crime. However, the narrator in this poem advocates for adultery.
13
Q
Fasti
A
- a didactic poem about religious festivals in Rome, written by Ovid
- (fasti is Latin for calendar)
- published in 8 AD, it details eye-witness of account of Roman dieties to explain the origins of Roman holidays
- each book covers one month of the Roman calendar
14
Q
Res Gestae
A
- Last piece of propaganda that helped to create Augustus’ legacy as Rome’s first emperor
- Augusutus left this text with his will and it was published throughout Rome
- it is first person record of Augustus’ life and accomplishements
15
Q
Gaius Julius Caesar
A
- 100 BCE-44 BCE
- he was the adopted father of Octavius/Augustus
- gains power over rome in 60 BCE with the first Triumvirate of Crassus and Pompey that dominated Roman politics for years
- Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both the Channel and the Rhine, when he built a bridge across the Rhine and crossed the Channel to invade Britain.
- when the Gallic war were ended, the Senate demaned Ceasar to come back to Rome, but he denied and corssed the Rubicon in 49 BCE instigating a civil war with Pompey
- after Caesar won this war, he provided celmency for those who sided with Pompey
- he also became invovled with the civil war in Egypt and sided with Cleopatra and had an affair with her
- He centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed “dictator in perpetuity”, giving him additional authority.
- his immense power caused his assination in 44 BCE by those he originally spared from the civil war
–The republic was no longer suitable to run a large area, so rome began relying on big generals to control and they expected big rewards
16
Q
First Triumvirate
A
- an informal political alliance between the three most powerful men in Rome in 59 BCE; comprised of Pompeius, Caesar, Crassus
- Caesar was a popular politician, Pompet was considered the greatest military commander of the time, and Crassus was the richest man in Rome
- the Triumvirate dispersed when Crassus was killed in the battle of Carrhea and Caesar then decalred civil war agaisnt Pompey
- this alliance was more about personal gain rather than what was good for the Romans
17
Q
Marcus Antonius
A
- 83 BCE-30 BCE
- a roman politician who played a critical role in the transformation of the roman republic from an oligarchy to an autocracy
- a loyal supporter of Julius Caesar ans served as one of his general on the conquest of Gaul
- after Caesars assination, he was part of the Second Triumvirate of Augustus and Lepidus
- after Caesars death, Antony thought he would gain all power, but it was left to Augustus which causes tension between the two
- Antony married Augustus’ sister to settle tension, but he left for Egypt in about 40 BCE and had an affair with Cleopatra– he even bore children with her
- he held a triumph in Egpyt which made for a good opprotunity for Augustan propaganda
- there was ongoing hostility between Augustus and Antony whihc resulted in five civila wars from 43 BCE-31 BCE
- Antony was defeated in the Battle of Actium and commited suicide
18
Q
Octavius/Augustus
A
- 63 BC-14 AD
- is considerd Rome’s first emporer and founder of the roman Principate; he ruled from 27 BC to 14 AD
- Caesar was his great uncle
- his rise to power began in from the Second Triumvirate, an alliance with Antony and Lepidus
- his ongoing feud with Antony resulted in victory at the battle of actium in 31 BC
- his reign was the most prosperous time in Roman history– he emphasized morality and modesty
19
Q
Second Triumvirate
A
- a legal and official three-man alliance/dictatorship between Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus
- formed in 43 BCE
- it marked the end of the Roman Republic
- the Second Triumvirate was an official, legally established institution, whose overwhelming power in the Roman state was given full legal sanction and whose imperium maius outranked that of all other magistrates, including the consuls.
- existed from 43 BCE-33 BCE
- Lepidus was sent into exile, Augustus accused him of usurping power and instigating a rebellion
- Antony was defeated in the battle of actium and commited suicide
- Augustus was left with full power
20
Q
Octavia
A
- 69 BCE-11 BCE
- Sister of Octavius
- fourth wife of Antony and bore him two daughters to secure the alliance between antony and augustus
- Octavia was respected and admired by contemporaries for her loyalty, nobility and humanity, and for maintaining traditional Roman feminine virtues
21
Q
Battle of Actium
A
- 31 BCE on the Ionian Sea
- Augusuts saw Cleopatra and her (and Caesar’s) son as a major threat to his political power
- it was the final civil war between Antony and Augustus
- It was augustus’ roman legions lead by Agrippa against Antony’s fleet backed by Cleopatra
- Octavian’s victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions
22
Q
Augustan Propoganda
A
- augustus’ power heavily relied upon propaganda; early examples include how Augustus used the affair between Cleopatra and Antony as a way to accuse Antony for adanoning rome
- he held a special position in the roman senate because he was the sole heir to Caesar; he was consul for 4 years in rome and held exclusive control over several provinces
- he always associated himself with peace and prosperity in order to gain favor from the public
- he adopted the name Princep, meaning first citizen, a title meant for the the oldest member of the Senate
- he wanted to avoid being called a dictator, so he associated consistently himself with divinities– that were closely linked to the founding myths of Rome– to make it seem like he had the right to rule: Mars, Venus, Aeneas, Romulus, Apollo, and Julius Caesar (Aeneas is a symbol of loyalty to the gods, city, and family)
- he erected a multitude of temples to demonstarte his relationship with the gods; temple of Venus Genetrix, of Apollo, of Mars Ultor
- he printed coins that promulgated his victory over Egypt
- Prima Porta Augustus: he erected many statues of himself as a young general with cupid at his feet to suggest he was a strong, fair, and chosen leader
- much of his propoganda emphasized that he was the natural leader for rome and that peace and porstperity were his sole aim – he introduced moral legislation and emphasised that this was a new age in rome
23
Q
Pax Romana
A
- peace and prosperity in the new age of rome
- it was a period of relative peace and prosperity throughout Rome for 200 years, which started with Augustus’ reign
- The aim of Augustus and his successors was to guarantee law, order, and security within the empire, even if this meant separating it from the rest of the world and defending, or even expanding, its borders through military intervention and conquest.
- this all started with Augustus, who introduced moral legislations and art that emphasized peace, harmony, duty, decency and wealth
24
Q
Divi Filius
A
- Augustus claimed to be a descedent of many divinities, which he thought granted him the right to be emporer
- his father (Caesar) was considered to be a god and therefore Augustus was the son of a god
- he printed the phrase “Divi Filius” on Roman voins to promulgate his ties with the goddess of victory and julius caesar– this wold circulate throughout the roman empire and people would have seen that Augustus was apparently the son of a god which further advanced him to his power
25
Augustus' Moral Legislation
**- Lex Iulia (18 B.C.E.)**: attempted to elevate both the morals and the numbers of the upper classes in Rome and to increase the population by encouraging marriage and having children.
- They also established adultery as a private and public crime. (Augustus had to exile his daughter and granddaughter under this law)
- Also penalised bribery when acquiring political offices.
- **Lex Papia Poppaea (9 C.E.)**: complemented the Lex Iluia and encouraged and strengthened marriage. It also included provisions against adultery and celibacy.
26
Horace
- 65 - 8 BCE
- the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus
- He wrote the Satires which involved Roman country and city life, giving us an insight into how the Romans lived, but it is important to remeber that it is from an upper class persepctive
- he considered city life to be impure and country life to be pure. he emphasized the splendor and glutiny of city folk
27
Tibullus
- 55- 19BCE
- His poem The Country Festival (The Ambarvalia) is a representation of rural religion
- he emphasized the working and purity of rural life
- again, remember it is from an upper class persepctive
28
Juvenal
- also wrote a Satire about roman urban life and how it is dishonest, dangerous, hard on the poor, crowded, and violent
- he also discusses how the greeks have ruined Rome with their extravagance
- again, remember it is from an upper class persepctive
- wrote about marraige as well, saying it is a dangerous, harmful institution because women themselves are dangerous and harmful.
29
*insula*
- apartment buildings in Rome
- a majority of the Romans lived in these-- there were 15,000 of them
- ordinary people of lower- or middle-class status (the plebs) and all but the wealthiest from the upper-middle class (the equites) lived in these apartments
- had running water and sanitation but only on the lower floors
- Living quarters were typically smallest in the building's uppermost floors, with the largest and most expensive apartments being located on the bottom floors.
- A single insula could accommodate over 40 people in only 3,600 sq ft (330 m2); however, the entire structure usually had about 6 to 7 apartments, each had about 1000 sq ft
- there was a fire in 64 CE (large portion of populations died), which changed the regulations for insula-- concrete instead of wood, no more than 6 stories tall, balconies for people to escape, and drainage system to allow firemen to be close to the water, and stairs were made from concrete
30
*domus*
- an urban mansion, there were only 1,800 of them in Rome
- occupied by the upper classes
- consisted of a main entrance, the atrium, a drain pool, smaller entrances and hallways, an office, a dining room, alae (a place to display death masks), bedrooms, and servant entrances
- had painted walls
- the home for Romans was a symbol of safe haven and prosperity-- the home was the epitome of publicizing roman procession
**-Penetralia= deepest part of a house (women’s quarters)**
31
paterfamilias
- this was the male that was head of the household and was an extension of the power dyanmic typically held in roman politics and central ideals
- had life and death power over everyone in his family and for women, that power was permanent (sons could become pateres themselves and exert that power later)
32
*villa*
- a country mansion
- built for the upper classes
- had a quarter where the chef and slaves worked and lived
- had storage rooms
- this would be like an escape from the city for the upper classes-- like how the hamptons are today
- again, it was a way for romans to express their strength and wealth
33
Cicero/*Pro Caelio*
- illustrate the sentiments and the depths of Roman misogyny, particularly its emphasis on the dangers of women’s sexuality
- it was a speech at a trial given by Cicero to defend Caelius Rufus agaisnt charges of political violence
- Cicero turns attention away from Caelius onto Caelius’ former lover, the infamous Clodia, who testified against him. In an attempt to discredit her testimony and lay some of the guilt for the murder at her feet, he censures her and her sex life. Cicero hopes he can foment the misogyny of Roman men in the jury pool to win his case.
34
Clodia Metelli
- an infamous figure in Roman times that represented the misogynistic views of women at the time
- she was ridiculed in the trial of Caellius as Cicero blames her for his misdeeds, calling her an old whore who lured Caellius into sinning
- she as an independent women that was well educated and of a high class-- she did not fit the strict ideals that romans imposed on their women, and therefore she was scorned for being a whore
35
Cornelia, mother of Gracchi
- she is the prototypical example of a virtuous Roman woman
- she is extremely devoted to her family and children and in Propertius, she speaks form beyond the grave and emphasizes what roman men found the most important thing in a womne-- giving birth
- She did not fulfill the need to have children by her husband and she even offered to divorce him so he could find another wife that would bear him children. That’s how devoted she was.
- Cornelia is an ideal woman because she was educated, but it was to the benefit of her FAMILY.
36
Juvenal/*The Sixth Satire*
- a widely cherished misogynistic screed
- he tries to convince his audience that marriage is a dangerous, harmful institution because women themselves are dangerous and harmful.
- One of the central points of his argument is that women are sexually crazed monstrosities who will never remain sexually loyal to their husbands because of their debased natures.
37
*Laudatio Turiae*
- a tombstone engraved with an epitaph that is a husabnd's eulogy to his wife
- it celebrates Clodia Metelli's pieatas to her family
- "Why should I mention your domestic virtues: your loyalty, obedience, affability, reasonableness, industry in working wool, religion without superstition, sobriety of attire, modesty of appearance? Why dwell on your love for your relatives, your devotion to your family?”
- emphasizes that Clodia's virtue
38
Vindolanda tablets
- a rare look into the personal lives of roman women, as it is the only evidence of real woman hand writing
- it is essentially a birthday party invitation
- letter from Claudia Severa to a personal friend Sulpicia Lepidina
- it reveals how possesed the women were by men, they have to ask permission to go places of their husbands and they sign their names as "wife of... daughter of... etc."
39
Sulpicia (the elegist)
- a female poet who lived in the reign of Augustus
- She works within the conventions of the genre of elegiac love poetry
- niece of the distinguished statesman and patron of Messalla (who was as patron of Ovid!)
- she provides insight into the feminine perspective of roman times
- she voiced her opinions and talked about her sexuality, which was controversial since women were to be silent in public, especially about sexuality
40
Manumission
- the act of a slave owner freeing his slaves-- this was secured either by the will of the owner or the slave worked to buy their freedom
- The promise of freedom motivated slaves to work hard, behave well, and save their money, although for the average slave the chance of obtaining freedom may not have been great.
- Roman slavery was perhaps unique in that ex-slaves became citizens.
- The manumission of a slave was considered a joyful occasion
- Freeing slaves was considered a generous display of wealth. Masters also might gain economic benefits from manumission, or at least not lose much.
-
41
Roman imperialism
- because the roman empire was so extraordinarily vast, there was a multitude of people from different ethnic backgrounds.
- as romans would move through cities and conquered them, they would take the people of these cities as slaves, rather than killing them.
42
Freedperson
- Once freed, former slaves could work in the same jobs as plebeians – as craftsmen, midwives or traders.
- Some even became wealthy. However, Rome’s rigid society attached importance to social status and even successful freedmen usually found the stigma of slavery hard to overcome – the degradation lasted well beyond the slavery itself.
- freedslaves were also left with a number of obligations to their master-- they had to attend his funeral and that of his family or friends to show that they had loyalty; they had to assume the name of their master once they were freed; they had to include the name of their master in their funerary inscriptions and such; they had to pay their master fees if there was an agreement in the manumission
43
Roman views on skin color
- romans did not take the color of a person skin to be an indicator of their worth, social class, or abilities
- romans did not inslave people becuase of their skin color, rather they did it through imperialism and captured people as they conquered different places
- it was where someone was from that indicated their status, which was only inferred through direct contact with an individual
44
Cicero
- expressed principles that became the bedrock of liberty in the modern world.
- He insisted on the primacy of moral standards over government laws. These standards became known as natural law. Above all, Cicero declared, government is morally obliged to protect human life and private property. When government runs amok, people have a right to rebel—Cicero honored daring individuals who helped overthrow tyrants.
- Cicero never challenged Roman slavery, which was among the most brutal in history, but he was more humane than his contemporaries.
- He preferred to have his farms worked by tenants rather than by slaves.
- The manumission of hardworking slaves was at least an ideal.
45
Tacitus
- an historian in the 2nd century C.E. in Rome
- he documents the existence of a particularly cruel law to punish slaves and to further entrench slavery.
- The law stipulated that if one slave killed their masters, all the slaves could be executed.
- He asserts that with this law, there would be mass fear of slave revolt and encouragement to inform.
- Slaves should not be treated as an enemy-- masters make themselves the enemy by treating slaves poorly
- Slaves benefit from speaking to their masters as friends
- should be sensitive to the fact that all slaves aren’t born slaves so masters had to understand that
46
Plautus
- wrote Pseudolus in 191 BCE, one of the earliest examples of roman literature
- shows stereotypes of slaves
- Plautus wrote these plays during a time of massive imperial expansion, Hellenization, and the rise of widespread slavery. Pseudolus, the titular character, is one of the clearest examples of the callidus servus (clever slave) archetype. (Roman Comedy is built on such archetypes: the clever slave, the pimp, the dowried and arrogant housewife.) The callidus servus type in particular reveals Roman anxieties about the role and ubiquity of slavery. Plautus situates his plays in Greek locales and gives his characters Greek names in order to provide comforting distance to his Roman audience: it was an easier way to explore the role of slavery by othering it. Pseudolus himself is decidedly Greek, is shown to speak Greek in the play, is referred to often by others in Greek, but he is also decidedly Roman and analogizes a victory he has in the play to a Roman general’s triumph. Plautus helps his audience overcome discomfort with his slave characters through not only geography, but through how the slave characters build rapport with the audience.
47
*Libertini/Libertinae*
- the title given to free men who were formally slaves
- they could not hold office or be priests, nor could they acheice senatroial rank
- men who were manumitted from slavery
- this represents the stark separation in class between the men who were born free and those who were manumitted-- it tied libertini to the harsh social conventions of slavery
**-libertinae: the femal version**
48
Peculium
- a certain amount of property that was alloted to a slave by their master
- the slave had complete control over this area and it was another way for them to purchase their freedom (and another way for a master to make money)
49
Augustus and manumission
- proposed the Lex Aelia Sentia
- augusutus sought to enact a series of laws and restrictions around manumission in order to perserve the purity of Roman blood (since slaves were often from different regions)
- law stated that for a manumission to be valid a master had to be at least twenty years old and a slave at least thirty
- certain slaves who were manumitted could not become full Roman citizens, but rather would become members of a lower class of freedmen
- If a manumitted slave was under age thirty, he could only achieve full citizenship after a legal proceeding (a "consilia") similar to a family law trial
-
50
Petronius
- author of Trimalcho's dinner party
- mocks the lifestyles of these former slaves
- mocks Trimalcho and his friends who try so hard to be more Roman than the Romans themselves, but keep on getting it wrong.
- is a representation of how romans were extremely tied to the ideal that you are only a true roman if you are born a free roman
51
Trimalchio
- the central character of Petronius' Trimalcho's dinner party
- he is a freed slaves who has acquired immense wealth and tries hard to act rome, but fails to so because of exaggerated extravagance
- is a representation of the new rich, but also the distaste the upper classes had for freedmen
52
Penates
- household gods worshiped in conjunction with Vesta and the lares by the ancient Romans.
- When the family had a meal, they threw a bit into the fire on the hearth for the Penates.
- They were thus associated with Vesta, the Lares, and the Genius of the paterfamilias in the "little universe" of the domus.
53
Lupercalia
- Took place on Feb 14th/15th and its origins date all the way back to Romulus and Remus
- subsumed Februa, an earlier festival that invovled cleansing rituals
- Women would sweep in their homes and go outside and watch men run around naked who have just come from sacrificing goats and dogs in a cave
- the men would whip the women with goat hides to ensure fertility
- festival was instituted to avert evil spirits and purify the city
- Pan/Faunus-- mad because he couldn’t rape Omphale because Hercules was wearing her clothes so he declared that no one should wear clothes ever
54
Priapus
- a minor rustic fertility god, protector of livestock, fruit plants, gardens and male genitalia
- symbol of health and fertility
- mother is Venus and father is mercury
- he is recognized for his large phallice
- he played a more important role in the countryside, where he was seen as a guardian deity
- was mostly worshiped in gardens or homes
- a patron god for merchant sailors in ancient Greece and Rome as well-- sailors would carry phallic figures to ensure Priapus' prtection
55
Lares
-twin gods represented with drinking cups, they were particularly worshipped at crossroads/boundaries
**-Lares compitales**-- lares of the city
**-Lares public**i-- lares of the state
- were believed to observe, protect and influence all that happened within the boundaries of their location or function.
- The statues of domestic Lares were placed at the table during family meals; their presence, cult and blessing seem to have been required at all important family events.
- represents an important point about how Romans saw religion in politics-- it was very intertwined, religion protected the state, the state protected religion.
56
Feralia
- feb 21
- a public festival that celebrated Roman spirits of the dead
- romans brought offerings to the tombs of their dead ancestors; an arrangment of wreaths, grain and salt, bread soaked in wine, and scattered violets
- Ovid tells of a time when Romans, in the midst of war, neglected Feralia, which prompted the spirits of the departed to rise from their graves in anger, howling and roaming the streets.
- all temples were closed and no weddings could be performed. On the last day a public ceremony, the Feralia, was held, during which offerings and gifts were placed at the graves and the anniversary of the funeral feast was celebrated.
57
Jutruna
- a goddess of fountains, wells and springs
- Legend tells that Juturna was loved by Jupiter, who turned her into a spring of eternal youth, where Juno bathed to restore her youthful freshness.
- considered to be a helper of mortals (Virgil makes her give Turnus his sword in a heated battle)
58
*Do ut des*
- a phrase that described the roman's relationsip with the god
- it means "i give so that you give"
- Gods required that humans respect their power and that they control the universe and they did not demand anything more-- rituals were practiced precisely for the benefit of the Roman state
- The gods did not love people and people didn’t think they should love the gods
59
Anna Perenna (Festival)
- new years festival and marks the first full moon of the year
- took place on the ides of march
- known as a time of community, gaiety, and drinking, commonly for the lower classes
- the origins are debated: Anna Perenna, for Ovid, is the sister of Dido
60
Lara/Tacita
- a goddess of the dead
- were invoked to destroy a hated person and these silent goddesses are the personification of terror of obscurity.
- they were invoked during the celebrations of the day of the dead
61
Macrobius
- wrote about the Saturnalia
- the first book is a history and discussion of the Roman calendar, and an attempt to derive all forms of worship from that of the Sun
- he was very obessed with Virgil, so he uses a lot of quotes
- he offers a competeing aetiology of this the Satunalia
62
Fasti (calendar)
- a chronological or calendar based list of plans of religously sanctioned events
- concerned with the several festivals, and everything relating to religious practice and the gods, and the magistrates; to the emperors, their birthdays, offices, days consecrated to them, with feasts and ceremonies established in their honor or for their prosperity.
- Julius caesar arranged the calendar in 365 days and 3 additional months to closely fit the solar patterns
- March was the new year until Augustus’ reforms
63
Saturnalia
- winter solstice
- A festival for the god Saturn who was the god of agriculture
- Used to be held on the 17th of December but reforms stretched this date
- It was a time of joy and optimism and good will-- a time for family, gift giving, and connecting with friends--it was the one day that slaves would be free
- Consisted of a sacrifice to Saturn and a big meal
- Lots of drinking and merriment (public gambling was allowed), masters waited on the slave, slaves were allowed to gamble
- No war could be waged during this time and no one could be punished
64
Divination (augury and haruspicy)
- process by which one tries to see the future or the will of the gods through certain types of rituals
- **augury**: the reading of bird movements in order to determine the future
- **haruspicy:** the reading of signs and animal intestines (Didn’t need to have a supernatural power to be able to do these things)
- one learned how to do this
65
Mystery cults (*mystes*)
- came around around 4th and 3rd century BCE
- served more personal, individualistic attitudes toward death and the afterlife
- Most were based on sacred stories (hieroi logoi) that often involved the ritual reenactment of a death-rebirth myth of a particular divinity.
- In addition to the promise of a better afterlife, mystery cults fostered social bonds among the participants, called mystai. Initiation fees and other contributions were also expected.
- involved the devoted worship of one god and offered a closer relationship to one divinity
66
Dionysus
- A lot of finery and culture are being brought into Rome (Greek)-- Livy says this new wealth influx causes people to worship Dionysus
- Originally god of childbirth and fertility; later became the god of wine
- Represents creativity and a lack of inhibition
- maintains a dual nature
- both masculine and effeminate and associated with animals
- sometimes represented as very mature and also young
- Represented as light and dark
- Represents realm of dead and expectation of a blessed afterlife
- he is the twice born son of Zeus and Semele: Born from the death of his mother and from the leg of Zeus: pregnant Semele burned alive when Zeus revealed his true self to her and he took the fetus and sewed it into his leg
- When you confront Dionysus, you confront mania and hysteria and inhibition
67
Bacchanalia
- festival of Bacchus based on various ecstatic elements of the Greek Dionysia
- livy accounted this festival as consisting of frenzied rites, sexually violent initiations of both sexes, all ages and all social classes, and the cult as a murderous instrument of conspiracy against the state
- he claims that celebrations and initiations featured wine-fueled violence and violent sexual promiscuity, in which the screams of the abused were drowned out by the din of drums and cymbals
- but Livy's account is bias by the Senate’s decree-- no one really knew what was going on in the religios rites of the mystery cults and since they were closely associated with women, perhaps reformation was in order
- the **Senatus consultus de Bacchanalibus** was instituted to regulate the worship of Dionysus
- Despite these regulations, the worship of Dionysus continued in secret up until Christianity (1rst C)
68
Isis
- Worshipped millenias before Rome was a blip on the map
- Usually a mother goddess
- Protector of the dead and presider over birth and rebirth
- Inventor of agriculture
- Lunar goddess
- Later on she became the goddess of navigation
- She navigated her followers through the border between life and death
- She received more stigma than any other goddess because she was an Egyptian diety
- worship of her promised a personal relationship with her and a good afterlife-- her worship was one of the first mystery cults
69
Apuleius (Lucius)
- Apulieus wrote a book called the Golden Ass which details the rites of ancient religious mysteries
- The plot revolves around the protagonist's curiosity and insatiable desire to see and practice magic. While trying to perform a spell to transform into a bird, he is accidentally transformed into an ass. This leads to a long journey, literal and metaphorical, filled with in-set tales.
- He finally finds salvation through the intervention of the goddess Isis, whose cult he joins.
- rebirth and transformation is emphasized
70
Tacitus (religion)
- he detailed the execution of Christ by Pontius Pilate
- detailed the presence and persecution of Christians in 1rst century rome
71
Constantine
- roman emporer who converted the roman empire to christianity in 312 AD
- ceased the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire
- instituted state funding for building churches
- Constantine and his immediate successors had forbidden the upkeep of pagan temples, and many temples were destroyed and pagan worshippers of the old religions killed during the reign of Constantine and his successors.
72
Pliny the Younger
- evidence of the perscution of Christians, though at the time it was not systematic, but more sporatic
- wrote a letter to Emperor Trajan around 112 AD and asked for counsel on dealing with Christians
- details an account of how Pliny conducted trials of suspected Christians who appeared before him as a result of anonymous accusations and asks for the Emperor's guidance on how they should be treated
- christians were said to do crazy shit in their religious practice, like incest or cannabalism
- Trajan and Pliny the Youner disallowed meetings of Christians and Christians could be charged with treason for refusing to worship the emperor as a god.
73
Julian the "Apostate"
- a Roman Emperor (361–363) of the Constantinian dynasty
- he converted from Christianity to Theurgy-- Julian had Christianity forced on him as a child by his cousin Constantius II
- He was the last pagan Roman Emperor, and tried to promote the Roman religious traditions of earlier centuries as a means of slowing the spread of Christianity
- Christianity's momemtum was too strong to be halted.
- many of Julian's actions were designed to harass and undermine the ability of Christians to organize in resistance to the re-establishment of pagan acceptance in the empire.
74
Philo
- 25 BCE-50 CE-- wanted the emporer develope a more tolerant view towards the Jews
- a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt.
- used philosophical allegory to harmonize Jewish scripture, mainly the Torah, with Greek philosophy
- His method followed the practices of both Jewish exegesis and Stoic philosophy.
- represents the apex of Jewish-Hellenistic syncretism. His work attempts to combine Plato and Moses into one philosophical system. His ethics were strongly influenced by Aristotelianism and Stoicism, preferring a morality of virtues without passions, such as lust/desire and anger, but with a "common human sympathy"
- wrote *Embassy of Gaius* this is an excerpt from his appeal for tolerance made to the emperor Caligula.
- The author describes the emperor Augustus’ tolerant attitude towards Jews, which he hope will persuade Caligula, a much unstable leader than his grandfather.
75
Jewish Diaspora
- Started 7th century BCE when Isrealites were taken into exile from the Kingdom of Isreal
- started as the Assyrian exile and then the Babylonian captivity
- Jews assimilated into wider Greek and Roman culture, didn’t wear the dress. Many flocked to alexandria and rome
- Only about 10% of Jews are living in the palestine area when Augustus was emperor
76
Tertullian
- he was the first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of Latin-Christian literature
- critisizes the effects and intentions of Pliny the Younger and Trajan, pointing out that there is no proof behind the wild accusations of Christianity and that the crime lies merely within the name
- "So we are put to the torture if we confess, and we are punished if we persevere, and if we deny we are acquitted, because all the contention is about a name."
77
Nero
- a roman emporer between 54 -68 ad
- his reign is associated with tyranny and extravagance
- Tacitus claims that the Roman people thought him compulsive and corrupt
- many romans believed that the fire of 64 CE was caused by him in order to open up areas for his plans of the palatial complex, the Domus Aurea
- seized Christians as scapegoats for the fire and burned them alive, seemingly motivated not by public justice but by personal cruelty
78
Palestine
- . Situated at a strategic point between Europe, Asia, and Africa, the region has a long and tumultuous history as a crossroads for religion, culture, commerce, and politics
- it is said to be the birthplace of judaism
- in the 330s, under Alexander the Great, the Romans took control of the vast coastline but the Seleucid resulted in the independence of certain regions including the Judean mountains
- the roman republic regained control and divided the region into 5 districts, but massive Judaen revolts resulted in the extensive depopulation of the country
- this was the center for jewish worship, but because of the diaspora, only 10% of jews actually were living there
- it was the site of the temple of jersualem
79
Temple of Jerusalem
- the main center of worship for jews
- located in palestine, or now called jersualem
- jews from around the world (in alexandria/rome/greece) would send money to palestine for the temple
- the temple was destroyed under emporer Vespasian, which resulted in the rise of synagogues in different cities, so jews would have a center to worship
80
Vespasian
- the first non-caesarian emporer from AD 69 to AD 79
- founded the flavian dynasty that ruled rome for 27 years
- subjugated Judaea during the Jewish rebellion of 66
- he is responsible for burning down the temple of jersualem
- his following rulers soldified a toxic jewish sentiment and Jews would often be scapegoats in time of moral and political crisis
81
Verism
- Romans took greek art and adapted it to their own needs
- portraiture that showed the subject as a true self
- *verus*: true
- Roman portraits are not idealized, they show more authentic and realistic characteristics of subject--showing scars and wrinkles of the subject was a sign of accomplishment or honor because of all they have experienced
- very prominent in death masks (depictions of ancestors (busts or masks)) that were displayed in roman homes
-
82
Work of Sara Bond
- studies have now shown that all Roman statues and portraitures were elaboratly painted and decorated, but because of how old they are today, the paint has worn off
- this is an important fact becasue displaying and studying the typical white statue has perhaps fed into the tendency of idealizing whiteness
- romans were not white, they lived in a hot sunny area for christ sakes! and the empire was so fast that there is no way that all of them were white
- the euroscentric ideals were further amplified by the fact that they could look back to these white statues and think they too were more powerful than anyone else because they were also white
- Sara Bond is advocating that museums should display the original painted decorations of Roman and Greek statues to incite people to understand that history is not dominated by white men
83
People of Color in Antiquity
-race was not an indicator of ability or status in antiquity, it was where you were born that mattered
84
Corinthian Columns
- the last developed of the three principal classical orders of ancient Greek and Roman architecture
- an ornate capital carved with stylized acanthus leaves
- romans were incredibly inspired by Greek art and architecture and adapted it to be more elaborate
- Romans used corinthian columns on the outside of their structures (Greeks only used it on the inside)
- Preferred this style because it was elaborate and more structurally sound
85
Beaux Arts Architecture in New York
- Period (1880-1920)
- chicago, boston and new york built structures explicitly harkening back to greek and roman art
- expresses an academic neoclassical architectural style
- because rome and greece was seen as powerful and mighty nations, their art and architecutre was adapted to reflect just those characterisitcs
86
Daphne and Apollo
- a subject that was very popular in later art
- written by ovid, the rape of daphne by apollo is a humurous account
- daphne is turned into a laurel tree (by her father) as she is prusued by Apollo
- apollo's lust does not cease and he tries to kiss and caress the tree
- Apollo uses the tree as a symbol of his power
- the tree is still beautiful (like daphne)
87
Io and Jupiter
- io was a priestess of the goddess Juno
- jupiter fell in love with the young girl and to avoid Juno's suspicion, he turned himself into smoke and mist and surrounded Io in a vast field and raped her
- Juno, however, finds out and comes down upon the scene, but jupiter immedialty transforms io into a cow to avoid Juno's suspision even further
- But Juno found out and tied the poor cow and sent her faithful servant Argus to watch over Io. Argus had a hundred eyes and only a few were ever closed at any time.
- Argus is killed by Mercury and Juno is furious and sends a gadfly to bother io in cow form
- jupiter promises never to sleep with io again and juno turns her back into a human
88
Pan and Syrinx
- written by ovid in the metamorpheses
- the lusty satyr Pan eagerly pursued the wood nymph Syrinx
- Guarding her virtue, she ran until she reached a river and desperately begged her sisters of the stream to transform her.
- Just as Pan was about to embrace her, Syrinx changed into cattail reeds.
- When Pan discovered that he was holding nothing but marsh reeds, he sighed in disappointment, causing the wind to blow through the reeds.
- He was enchanted by the sound, believing it to be the mournful cry of his beloved Syrinx; from the reeds he fashioned a set of pipes so that he could have her with him always.
- the lyre then was born
89
Callisto, Jupiter, and Diana
- he God Jupiter transforms himself into the goddess Diana in order to seduce Diana’s maiden follower Callisto
- he seduces Callisto and she is impregnated
- she is expelled from the following of Diana and is turned into a bear by the jealous Juno
- Later, just as she was about to be killed by her son when he was hunting, she was set among the stars as Ursa Major
90
Europa and Jupiter
- europa is the daughter of Agenor and Jupiter falls in love with her
- he assumes the shape of a bull and carries her off into sea where he rapes her
- her brother Cadmus, who searched for his sister, was to settle in Greece, and would become the founder of the city of Thebes.
91
Brutus
- roman politician who took a leading role in the assination of Julius Caesar
- Julius caesar thought he was loyal and put his utmost trust in im
- a descendant of the founder of the roman republic
- family was famous for killing tyrants
- soon after caesar death, he realized he did not gain the power he originally sought and committed suicied
92
Cassius
- a roman senator and leading instigator of the plot to kill Julius Caesar
- commanded troops with Brutus during the Battle of Philippi against the combined forces of Mark Antony and Octavian, Caesar's former supporters, and committed suicide after being defeated by Mark Antony.
93
Assissination of Julius Caesar
- march 13, 44 bce
- the senate was worried that julius caesar had too much power and was giving a lot of money and power to people that were no roman
- he was considerd to be a tyrant and therefore he was assassinated
94
Plutarch
- a Greek biographer who detailed the life of Caesar
- the account is chronological and high lights caesar's accomplishments and military talent
- wrote around 50-120 AD, so many years after Caesar
95
Suetonius
- a Roman historian who wrote during the imperial era of the roman empire
- he wrote a book called the 12 caesars, which detailed the lives of julius caesar and the 11 rulers that succeeded him
- he gives a thematic accound of caesar's life rather than chronological
96
the male gaze
- women in the eyes of men in roman times were seen merely as vessels to represent a mans power, they were not considerd for their own intellect and abilities
- the male gaze in rome was extraordinarily prominent, as men only saw women as objects rather than on their level
- all art (of roman mythology) is painted from the male gaze as the rapes of mulitple women are not depicted as being horrible events, but rather lustful and consentful
97
Lucian
- he writes a DIALOGUE OF SEX WORKERS (2nd century C.E.)
- it is a conversation between a sex worker and man asking her about her lesbian experiences
- she never tells him what exaclty happens, but she is insuating that lesbian relations are happening
98
Seneca
- he writes *On Anger* and asks his audience to consider why a slave might lash out at their masters and he asks them to consider the transitions that slaves, who were once free, have to make.
- he also writes about how women have become more like men because of homoeroticism in his *EPISTULA*
99
Martial
- a roman poet who wrote about sexual relations between young boys and men
100
Catallus
- a roman poet who had a quite profanic style of writing
- he wrote about homoeroticism
101
Roman Homoeroticism
- it was common practice for romans to have homosexual relations
- it was a symbol of power to penetrate, though
- you were considered weak if you were the penetrator
- many young boys were victims of this practice
102
Iphis and Ianthe
- Ligdus tells his pregnant wife Telethusa that a girl would be too much of a burden and that if she were to birth a girl, he would kill her
- Telethusa gives birth to a girl, but she does not want her to die so she disguises her as a boy
- Iphis grows up as a boy and 13 years later is betrothed to Ianthe
- she is transformed by isis into a boy so she can continue to live as she has alwasy lived
103
Dido
- the queen of Carthage
- Virgil portrays her as Aeneas's equal and feminine counterpart.
- a strong, determined, and independent woman who possesses heroic dimensions.
- Because Juno and Venus manipulate Dido and Aeneas, Dido becomes infatuated with Aeneas and neglects her duties
- but aeneas cannot escape his fate and must sail off and dido, in dispair, kills herself
104
Roman Civilization
flashcards
Decks in class (3)
# Cards
