Final Important Memorization

Question 1

Glutamate

Answer 1

• Exitatory projection neurons in brain
• -NMDAr and AMPAr= ionotropic
• Seen w/–> LTP, schizophrenia, excitatory spinal interneurons, sound transduction

Question 2

Acetylcholine

Answer 2

• Excitatory
• Nicotinic= ionotropic, Muscarinic= metabotropic (slows heart rate)
• Seen w/–> neuromuscular jxn (nicotinic), cog symptoms of schizophrenia

Question 3

Dopamine Excitatory

Answer 3

• D1 fam= d1 and d5= metabotropic

- seen w/–> mesocorticolimbic (reward) pathway, direct pathway (movement), negative symptoms of schizophrenia

Question 4

GABA

Answer 4

• Inhibition of interneurons
• -GABAa= ionotropic (Cl- channel)
• -GABAb= metabotropic (inhibits adenylyl cyclase–> opening of K+, closing of Ca2+)
• Seen w/–> reciprocal inhibition

Question 5

Glycine

Answer 5

• Inhibition in SC and brainstem

- Seen w/–> inhibitory spinal interneurons

Question 6

Dopamine Inhibitory

Answer 6

• D2 fam= d2,d3,d4= metabotropic

- Seen w/–> positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Question 7

Excitatory NTMs

Answer 7

Na+ and Ca2+ influx–> EPSPs

Question 8

Inhibitory NTMs

Answer 8

K+ out, Cl- in–> IPSPs

Question 9

Action Potential–> Resting Membrane Potential

Answer 9

• 65mV
• Pumps maintain PONI with 2K+ in, 3Na+ out
• K+ leak channels= mV close to Ek

Question 10

Action Potential–> Rising Phase

Answer 10

-Na+ channels open, Na+ into cell–> depolarization

Question 11

Action Potential–> Overshoot

Answer 11

-Membrane potential goes close to Ena

Question 12

Action Potential–> Falling Phase

Answer 12

• Na+ channel inactivates, K+ opens (delayed rectifier)

- mV gets closer to RP (repolarization)

Question 13

Action Potential–>Undershoot

Answer 13

-mV get closer to Ek

Question 14

Circuit of Neural Network Model

Answer 14

Sensory Info–> cortical association areas–> parahippocampal and rhinal cortical areas–> hippocampus –fornix–> hypothalamus, thalamus

Question 15

Step 1 LTP

Answer 15

• Glu released; Binds to AMPAr and NMDAr

- AMPA conducts Na+ ions, NMDA blocked by Mg2+

Question 16

Step 2 LTP

Answer 16

• AMPAr depolarize membrane

- Mg2+ unblocks NMDA, NMDA conducts Ca2+

Question 17

Step 3 LTP

Answer 17

-Ca2+ activates CaMKII, Protein Kinases A and C

Question 18

Step 4 LTP

Answer 18

• Kinases catalyze synaptic plasticity
• -Exocytosis of AMPAr to synaptic membrane
• -Increased conductance of AMPA= greater depolarizations/ EPSPs

Question 19

Step 5 LTP

Answer 19

• Consolidation (Late LTP)
• Kinases activate transcription factors and epigenetic markers
• W/O this, memories would be erased**

Question 20

Stretch Reflex

Answer 20

• GMN stimulated by 1a sensory axon (intrafusal)
• AMN stimulated by 1a sensory axon (extrafusal)
• *Need change in muscle length to fire

Question 21

Reciprocal Inhibition

Answer 21

• While one muscle group contracts, antagonist muscle relaxes (inhibited)
• 1a sensory neuron–> inhibitory interneuron–> antagonist muscle lower motor neuron

Question 22

Flexor Withdrawl

Answer 22

-Nociceptor–> excitatory neuron–> lower motor neuron of flexor

Question 23

Central Pattern Generator

Answer 23

-UMN–> excitatory and inhibitory interneuron–> extensor and flexor LMNs

Question 24

Lateral Pathways

Answer 24

• Voluntary control of distal muscles
• –Corticospinal tract
• –Rubrospinal tract

Question 25

Corticospinal Tract

Answer 25

-Neocortex--> decussates at medulla--> LMN

Question 26

Rubrospinal Tract

Answer 26

-Red nucleus--> decussates at pons--> LMN

Question 27

Ventromedial Pathway

Answer 27

- Controls proximal muscles - Involuntary posture, balance, rxns - -Vestibulospinal tract - -Tectospinal tract - -Pontinereticulospinal tract - -Medullary reticulospinal tract

Question 28

Vestibulospinal Tract

Answer 28

-Origin= medulla

Question 29

Tectospinal Tract

Answer 29

-Origin: Colliculus

Question 30

Pontinereticulospinal tract

Answer 30

-Origin: Pons

Question 31

Medullary Reticulospinal Tract

Answer 31

-Origin= medulla

Question 32

HPA Axis

Answer 32

Hypothalamus--CRH--> Anterior Pituitary--ACTH--> adrenal glands--cort--> bloodstream/periphery *CORT leads to neg feedback for production of ACTH AND CRH

Question 33

HPG Axis

Answer 33

Hypothalamus-- GnRH--> Anterior Pituitary -- LH and FSH--> gonads-- sex hormones--> bloodstream *Sex hormones lead to neg feedback in production of GnRH and LH/FSH

Question 34

Mesocorticolimbic Pathway

Answer 34

VTA--> PFC--> NAc

Question 35

Neural Circuit of Speech Production

Answer 35

-Auditory cortex (spoken aloud) or Straite cortex (written word)--> Wernicke parses meaning of important words--> Arcuate fasiculus--> Broca--> Motor cortex (speech articulation)

Question 36

Direct Pathway

Answer 36

-Disinhibits thalamus--> excites cortex--> sends motor plan

Question 37

Muscle Innervation Steps

Answer 37

1. LMN releases ACh 2. ACh produces EPSP 3. EPSP--> AP 4. AP--> release of Ca2+ 5. Fiber contracts 6. Ca2+ reuptake 7. Fiber relaxes

Question 38

Transduction of Sound

Answer 38

- Tallest stereocilia bends toward smallest= hyperpolarization - Tallest away from smallest= depolarization - -Due to tip links stretching, opens K+ channels (Influx)==> depolarization--> release of Ca2+--> Hair cell releases glutamate--> depolarizes cochlear nervee

Question 39

Taste Transduction

Answer 39

-Tastant binds to taste receptor cell (GPCR for sweet, umami, bitter; TRP for sour, salty)--> depolarization--> release of ATP (sweet, umami, bitter) or 5-HT (sour, salty)--> depolarization 1st order neuron

Question 40

Vision Transduction (Dark)

Answer 40

-Opsin= GPCR--> activates 2nd messenger--> opening Na+ channels--> depolarization--> release of glutamate--> depolarization of bipolar cell

Question 41

Vision Transduction (Light)

Answer 41

-Opsin=GPCR--> activates 2nd messenger--> closing Na+ channels--> hyperpolarization--> release of glutamate--> depolarization of bipolar cell

Question 42

Touch/Pain Transduction

Answer 42

- Touch--> mechanoreceptors opened by pressure on cell membrane, cytoskeletal protein, or extracellular protein--> Na+ and Ca2+ inside cell--> depolarization--> activation 1st order neuron * pain= same but with nociceptors

Question 43

Taste Pathway

Answer 43

-Receptor--> Cranial nerves (9,10,7)--> brainstem--> NTS--> VPM--> Primary gustatory cortex

Question 44

Smell

Answer 44

- Receptor--> mitral cells--> glomerili--> olfactory bulb--> piriform cortex * *NO THALAMIC NUCLEUS

Question 45

Sight Pathway

Answer 45

-Receptor--> ganglion cells--> optic nerve--> optic chiasm--> optic tract--> LGN--> Primary Visual Cortex/Striate cortex

Question 46

Hearing Pathway

Answer 46

-Hair cells--> cochlear nerve--> spiral ganglion--> cochlear nuclei--> superior olive--> inferior colliculus--> MGN--> Primary auditory cortex

Question 47

Touch (Medial Lemiscal) Pathway

Answer 47

-Dorsal root--> dorsal column nucleus--> medial lemiscus--> VP--> S1

Question 48

Pain (Spinal Thalamic) Pathway

Answer 48

-Dorsal root--> SC--> VP and intralaminar--> S1

Question 49

Crossed Extensor Reflex

Answer 49

- Same side of pain: flexor excited, extensor inhibited | - Opposite side of paim: flexor inhibited, extensor excited

Question 50

Decussations

Answer 50

- Taste and smell: None - Optic chiasm: partial decussation for sight - Pons= hearing - Medulla= touch - Spinal cord= pain - Balance: not important

Question 51

Properties of an Action Potential

Answer 51

- All or none, either reaches threshold or doesn't - Same magnitude and duration - Membrane briefly more positive inside than out - Regenerated over distance - Wave motion