1
Q
what is a direct measurement of neural activity?
A
Electric and Magnetic Signals
2
Q
Electroencephalography (EEG)
A
- continuous recording of large populations of neurons
- EEG associated w/ behavioral states (wakefullness)
- Good temporal
- poor spatial
3
Q
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
A
-Similar temporal resolution to EEG
-Better spatial resolution (no signal distortion)
***ID cortical functionality
4
Q
what are indirect measurement of neural activity?
A
Metabolic Signals
1) Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
2) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
5
Q
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
A
- local changes in cerebral blood flow
- use radioactive tracer (emits photons/gamma rays)
- regional cerebral blood flow (rBCF) = patient @ rest Vs. patient performing cognitive task
-BAD = radioactive isoptope (Invasive) // Limited # of tests
6
Q
2) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
A
-magnetic properties of hemoglobin (O2 : deoxygenated)
=blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) effect
GOOD bcuz…
- non-invasive & can be repeated
- best spatial resolution
- best temporal due to BOLD signal
7
Q
previous Evolving Brain Theory
A
1) Neural circuitry is static
2) Cognitive functions & memory are localized
3) Information processing = ONLY serial processing
4) Brain = driven by EXTRINSIC sensory input
5) Brain function(s) VULNERABLE to single site injury
6) Clinical supporting evidence limited
8
Q
current evolution brain theory
A
1) Neural circuitry is plastic
2) Cognitive functions & memory are distributed
3) Information processing = serial, parallel, & reciprocal
4) Brain = driven by internal, INTRINSIC cycles (intrinsic and extrinsic interaction)
5) Brain func(s) RESISTANT to degradation by single site injury
6) Clinical supporting evidence strong
9
Q
single-source divergent networks define
A
one type of signaling molecule that influence numerous other target brain areas.
Often neurons w/in these nuclei have axons, which diverge & send projections to multiple brain regions
10
Q
single-source divergent network characteristics
A
- Early embryonic development
- Support all cognitive funcs
- “brain state modulatory controls”
- Regulate information throughout brain - Organized in a hierarchy
- Exhibit functional stability when local network damage
- Created & altered by synaptic plasticity processes
- Consist of many long-reaching axonal branches
- Categorized by the NT utilized
11
Q
5 Single-source Divergent Networks
A
- Dopamine(DA)
- Norepi (noradrenaline/adrenaline) /Epinephrine
- Histamine(His)
- Serotonin (5-HT/ 5-HTP)
- Acetylcholine(ACh)
12
Q
5 Single-source Divergent Networks general features
A
-Each system = unique NT (All small NTs)
-Ca2+ dependent release
-Neurons that release a single NT are contained in nuclei =
brainstem, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain
-Network neurons have unmyelinated axons & highly arborized = synapse on many target
-All 5 networks are interconnected & work cooperatively together to control overall brain state (consciousness, attention, etc.)
13
Q
Neural Networks Working Together:
A
w/in neural networks = circuits (excitatory & inhibitory) via = serial, parallel & reciprocal.
–also between each network
14
Q
how is cognitive neuroscience studied?
A
- Functional neuro imaging
- Electrophysiological studies
- Psychophysical experiments
- Cognitive genetics
- Traditional clinical studies
15
Q
Nature (Genetics)
A
- Necessary for laying neuronal groundwork
- “Neural Darwinism” and apoptosis
- Individual variability in genomic plan
16
Q
Nurture (Experience)
A
- Refinement of the neural system
- Experience/stimuli alters synapses
- “Wiring by firing”/ D. Hebb’s plasticity theory
17
Q
Neuronal Networks/ Assemblies
A
- groups of many neurons that tend to fire together
- Synapses are continuously and reversibly altering
- underpin all cognitive processes
18
Q
Neural Darwinism
A
-neurobiology of consciousness
-brain is a somatic selection system that works in a manner similar to evolution
3 Stages = Developmental Selection// Experiential Selection // Mapping
19
Q
Developmental Selection (Neural Darwinism)
A
Under genetic control
o Cell division & cell death
o Axon & cell migration taking place
o Growth factors, cytokines, & glutamate = key players
20
Q
Experiential Selection (Neural Darwinism)
A
Under experiential control
o Functioning circuits created with somatosensory input
o Circuits created during developmental r strengthened
o Refinement of the network
21
Q
Mapping (Neural Darwinism)
A
Numerous neural maps are formed by the brain
o maps = processing of signals from body & environment
oEx: 1 brain map = pressure r/c for the body –> brain
o Maps can interact w/ each other = further refinement
22
Q
Building Neural Networks
follows Hebb’s synaptic plasticity (LTP, LTD)
A
**LTP needs pre & post neuronal firing
o Relies on protein kinase activity
o Produces increased synaptic efficiency & strength
**LTD requires “asynchronous” firing
o Relies on protein phosphatases activity
o Produces weakened synaptic strength & efficiency
–Both LTP & LTD need (+) of NMDA r/c and entry of Ca2+
–[Ca2+] onto postsynaptic neuron = LTP or LTD occurs
possibly use same set of regulatory proteins
23
Q
(+) feedforward excitatory connection
A
-information from a lower level of a circuit being transmitted to a higher level
(Ex: LGB –> cortical)
24
Q
(+) feedback excitatory connection
A
-info = lower –> higher –> lower level.
Ex: LGB –> ocrtical –> LGB
25
(+) lateral excitatory connection
communication btwn neurons within the same processing level (ex- all from LGN)
26
(-) feedforward inhibitory connection
output of one level decreases the activity of the next
27
(-) feedback inhibitory connection
output of a higher order level of a circuit decreases the input activity to that circuit
28
(-) lateral inhibitory connection
activity of one set of neurons can decrease the acivity of other neurons at same level. (LGB--> cortical --> other cortical areas)
29
Disinhibition
when an inhibiter inhibits = you get excitation
30
Divergence
-degree which a neuron projects input to a large number of target neurons (axon collaterals)
aka-ability of one NT to activate >1 r/c
31
Convergence
-degree which a neuron receives input from a large number of other neurons
aka-ability of different NTs to converge to same circuit
32
Circuit Types
1) Hierarchical
| 2) Local
33
Hierarchical Circuit Types
- -each level is regulated by local circuits via...
1. Serial processing X--> X--> X
2. Parallel processing: info flows in a “side by side” manner
3. Reciprocal processing: info flows back and forth
34
Local circuit
- within hierarchical circuits & alter processing at each hierarchical level (via)
1) Feed-forward (+/-)
2) feedback connections (+/-)
35
Local Circuit Dynamics
- sensory & motor systems from CNS & PNS create conscious awareness of internal & external environment
- -PNS = “reliable” = not plastic
- -CNS pathways are plastic (strength = activity-dependent)
36
Functional neuron types
1) sensory
2) motor
3) interneuron
4) modulatory neuron
37
sensory neuron
- detecting stimuli r/c's convert environmental stimuli --> electrical
(ex: light, pressure, sound, etc.)
- THEN electrical impulses --> chemical (NTs)
38
motor neurons
--transmit impulses from a central location of the CNS to a distal target which then stimulates a muscular or glandular response
39
interneuron
- -within & between pathways
| - convert chemical signals back into electrical signals
40
modulatory neruons
--regulation of neuronal integration for all sensory, motor & associative system input
o Modulate general & widespread func in CNS
41
The Complexity of the Nervous System (fun facts)
~90 billion neurons within brain
o ~30 billion in neocortex
o Cortex=~25% stellate neurons(~10,000 synap/neuron)
o other 75% = pyramidal neurons (~18,000 synap/neuron)
o Hundreds of trillions of synapses in total!
42
Cells of the Nervous System
1) Neurons = rapid communication via nerve impulses
2) neuroglial cells = non-neuronal cells
* *outnumber neurons in the CNS by a factor of 10
43
Neuroglial cells
```
CNS
1) Oligodendrocytes
2) Astrocytes
3) Microglial cells
PNS
4) Schwann cells
```
44
Oligodendrocytes
these glial cells send out protoplasmic processes that make contact with nearby axons and form myelin sheaths around them.
A single oligodendrocyte can myelinate multiple axons within the CNS
45
Astrocytes
1) Produce matrix & adhesion molecules
= guide developing neurons
2) Secrete growth factors = regulate morphology, differentiation, proliferation, & survival of neurons
3) Form blood-brain barrier via tight junctions
4) Regulate NT removal @ synaptic cleft
5) Detoxify the CNS (via sequestering)
6) IntRAcellular signaling & ~intERcellular signaling thru intracellular Ca2+ waves
7) Mediate astrogliosis (an increase in the # of astrocytes) in response to injury = attempt to reduce neural damage, often results in glial scar formation
46
Microglial cells
-small somas & numerous processes,
-mediate immune reactions within CNS
***retain the ability to divide.
1) Phagocytose degenerating cells that are undergoing apoptosis (esp. during development)
2) During development, they aid in fiber tract development, gliogenesis, and angiogenesis by secreting growth factors
o Involved in presenting antigens to T lymphocytes
o Become “reactive” (undergo amorphology change) and phagocytic during pathological circumstances in the adult CNS
47
Schwann cells
--a single Schwann cell will myelinate only a single axon segment.
--Multiple Schwann cells are needed to myelinate the entire length of a peripheral axon.
o Respond to injury by secreting growth factors, removing debris, providing structural support and guidance to regenerating axons
48
The Neural Triad:
Neurons, Glia and Vasculature
49
Neurons
--cells of numerous subtypes specialized for communication o All neurological processes depend on the complex cell to cell interactions among individuals neurons as well as groups of neurons
50
Neuroglial cells
- -structural & functional support cells which carrying out diverse actions ranging from immune responses to myelination of axons
- -3 types in CNS: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, & microglia
51
Cerebral Vasculature
- -supports brain development & function
- --Contributes to neurogenesis
- -Transports O2/nutrients & removes waste & CO2
- -Endothelial cells interact with neurons, astrocytes, and microglia to form the blood-brain barrier (BBB)
52
Ca2+ Signaling of Astrocytes
--activated metabotropic r/c = signal transduction pathway (STP) = release of Ca2+ w/in astrocyte
= release of Ca2+-dependent NTs
(glutamate, ATP, D-serine) *****aka-“gliotransmitters”*
- -Ca2+ signaling w/in astrocytes = NOT all-or-none features.
* *full extent to which astrocytes are involved in the regulation of synaptic activity remains to be determined
53
Tripartite Synapse
pre & post neuron & astrocyte
54
Gliotransmitter (ATP)
1) Target
2) Receptor
3) Function/Action
1) Glia to Glia
2) Metabotropic receptors
3) Decreases glial cell calcium level
55
Gliotransmitter (Glutamate)
1) Target
2) Receptor
3) Function/Action
1) Neurons & Glia
2) • Neuron: Ionotropic r/c (AMPAR’s & NMDAR’s)
• Astrocyte: Metabotropic r/c
3) Enhances NT release & EPSPs
• Modulates glial calcium levels (increase or decrease)
56
Gliotransmitter (D-Serine)
1) Target
2) Receptor
3) Function/Action
1) Postsynaptic Neuron
2) Ionotropic receptors (NMDAR’s)
3) Enhances EPSPs
57
Overview: Glial Cell Function
--Regulate glucose & O2 available for neuronal functions (formation of the BBB)
--Promote neurogenesis & axonal migration in development
--Saltatory conduction possible &make conduction fast
--Initiate & participate in immune responses of brain
--Respond to neural injury & promote regeneration
--Detoxify the CNS (sequestering)
--Control [NTs] @ synapses
--Aid in synaptic transmission
--Gliotransmission (glia->glia talk via Ca2+ signaling)
58
cortical columns =
group of neurons that process more complex operations
59
properties of cortical columns
1) process sensory & motor as well as cognitive function
2) each column = ~100 neurons
3) 6 distinct layers
4) w/in a column = similar receptive field
5) columns can be linked together
60
layers 1-3 (supragranular layer)
send reciprocal projections to other cortical columns
| --surface layer
61
layer 4
divides supragranular & infragranular
- -receives info from thalamus
- -sends input to other layers
62
layer 5 & 6 (infragranular)
- -input from supragranular of adjacent layers
- -do NOT send projects back to adjacent columns
- -send projections to extracortical areas (thalamus & motor sensory)
63
cortical columns w/in the thalamus
receives input form all regions of cortex & subcortex
- -"feedback circuit" (infragranular-->thalamus-->layer 4)
- -info flow w/in cortex mediated by supragranular neurons while additional info from internal & external environment integrated by thalamus--> layer 4
64
5 SSDN & sleep
circuits that promote arousal (wakefulness) & that promote sleep must be activated separately in order for sleep-wake cycle to proceed
65
sleep-wake cycle stages
--Awake (all 5-SSDN active)
--Non-REM sleep (stages 1-4)
stages 1-2 = light sleep
stage 3 = moderate-deep sleep
stage 4 = deepest level of slow-wave sleep
--REM sleep
66
Non-REM sleep
- -triggered by release of adenosine from glial cells
| - -characterized by noradrenergic neurons in locus coeruleus & serotonergic (5-HT) neurons in the raphe nuclei
67
REM sleep
**--activation of cholinergic (ACh) neurons in pons (PPN)
= (+) effects of REM sleep
**--increase GABAergic neurons in reticular formation (pons) sends (-) neurons on LMN (lower motor neurons) in spinal cord = physical paralysis during REM
--EEG during REM = similar to awake
--vivid hallucinations
--~4 cycles of REM/night
68
Norepinephrine/noradrenaline (Lc)
1) Awake
2) Non-REM
3) REM
1) Awake = on
2) Non-Rem = **ON (most are off except this & serotonin)
3) REM = off
69
Histamine (T-Mn)
1) Awake
2) Non-REM
3) REM
1) Awake = on
2) Non-REM = off
3) REM = off
70
Serotonin (nR)
1) Awake
2) Non-REM
3) REM
1) Awake = on
2) Non-REM = **ON (most are off except this & norepine)
3) REM
71
Acetylcholine (PPT-NB)
1) Awake
2) Non-REM
3) REM
1) Awake = on
2) Non-REM = off
3) REM = **ON (only one that is on during REM)
72
Dopamine (VTA)
1) Awake
2) Non-REM
3) REM
1) Awake = on
2) Non-REM = off
3) REM = off
73
importance of REM sleep =
1) during development = adults=high % of sleep-wake cycle
2) REM rebound = sleep deprivation = increase REM %
3) deprived of REM = (-) cognitive tasks // memories
74
importance of Non-REM sleep
conservation of energy & restore the mind
- -"sleep induction" hypothesis = energy conservation
- -awake = release NTs = deplete glial cell energy
- -depleted glial energy = release adenosine
- -r/c on cerebral cortex, thalamus, brainstem bind adenosine = (+) induction of non-REM sleep
- -helps replenish glycogen stores of glial cells
75
importance of all stages of sleep (brainwashing)
- -principle fun of sleep = remove metabolic waste.
- -cells contract = more space = CSF flow collects waste
- -lack of waste remove = alzheimer's
76
positive emotions
modulated through dopamine (DA)
- -on ventral segmental area (VTA) in brainstem --> basal forebrain (specifically the nucleus accumbens (nAc))
- - = inhibit amygdala
- -VTA also goes to cortex --> medial prefrontal cortex (Med PFc) which aids in the processes in working memory & (+) emotion
- -ant & post cingulated gyrus = focuses attention
- -insula = modulation of emotions
77
negative emotions
norepinephrine/ moradrenalin (NE/NA) & serotonin (5-HT) system:
- -serotonergic neurons of the raphe nuclei (nR) & noradrenergic neurons on the locus coeruleus (Lc) & brainstem & neurons w.in the periaqueductal gray
- Ln, nR, and PAG also go to context =
- -orbital prefrontal cortex = working memory = (-) emotions
- -anterior cingulate gyrus (ant CG), which focuses attention
- -insula BOTH (+ & -) emotions
78
VTA =
ventral tegmental area
| -where dopaminergic neurons are (+ emotions)
79
nAc =
nucleus accumbens
-dopaminergic neurons of the VTA (ventral segmental area) project to.
(+) = inhibit amygdala = positive emotions
80
Med PFc
medial prefrontal cortex
| --(+) working memory for positive emotions
81
anterior & posterior cingulated gyrus =
focuses attention
| -positive emotions
82
insula
modulates both positive & negative emotions
83
serotonin (5-HT) system
serotonergic neurons of the raphe nuclei (nR)
| --for negative emotions
84
norephnoephrine/ noradrenalin (NE/NA)
noradrenergic neurons of locus coerulus (Lc) & neurons in periadueductal gray (PAG) = (+) amygdala = suppress nAc (nucleus accumbens)
85
orbital prefrontal cortex
processes working memory related to negative emotions
86
anterior cingulate gyrus
focuses attention
87
overview of positive emotion
brainstem (VTA) --> basal forebrain (+) nAc & (-) amygdala --> cortex (medial PFC & ant/POST CG & insula)
88
overview of negative emotion
brainstem (Lc & nR & PAG) --> basal forebrain (-) nAc & (+) amygdala --> cortex (orbital PFC & ant ONLY CG & insula)
89
nR =
raphe nuclei
90
prefrontal cortex & working memory
1) lateral = (R) = perceptual data & (L) = symbolic
(language & semantic)
2) medial = positive emotions & memories
3) orbital = negative meotions & memories
91
working memory networks
(brainstem/forebrain) = 5SSDN -->thalamus = (intralaminar nucleus & thalamic reticular nucleus & mediodorsal thalamic nucleus) --> cortex = lateral//medial//orbital
92
control of attention is under which direction?
working memory of the prefrontal cortex
93
brain regions involved in attention
1) 5 SSDNs
2) Tectum = auditory (inferior) & visual (superior)
3) Thalamic ARAS (intralaminar nucleus & thalamic reticular nucleus) & pulvinar nucleus = relay station for 5 SSDNs
4) cingulate gyrus = alertness
5) right lateral prefrontal cortex = perceptual
6) right superior parietal lobe = controls shifts in attention including spatial locations
94
Long term memory =
aka-qualitative memory
1) declarative
2) non-declaritive
95
declarative memory
knowledge with conscious access. (explicit memory)
1) semantic = world knowledge
2) episodic = personal knowledge
96
nondeclarative memory
- does NOT require intentional recall
1) procedural memory
2) priming
3) classical conditioning
4) non-associative learning
97
procedural memory
involves learning of motor and cognitive skills
98
priming
memory that involves change in response to stimulus as a result of previous exposure
99
classical conditioning
"pavlovian conditioning" a conditioned stimulus parked with an unconditioned response which results in an evoked response to the conditioned stimulus
100
non-associative learning
1) habituation = decreased response to a stimulus following repeated exposure
2) sensitization = increase response to a stimulus ...
101
Case Study H.M.
bilateral medial temporal lobectomy = anterograde amnesia (couldn't form new memories)
- working memory was still in tact BUT LTM was not
1) MTL is necessary for memory
2) storage of STM & LTM are different
3) 2 distinct categories of long-term memory exists (explicit = declarative & implicit = nondeclaritive)
102
retrograde amnesia
loss of info/ memories for a period of time prior to the event
103
anterograde amnesia
loss of info/ memories following an event
104
semantic knowledge =
facts, info, symbolic, language-based experience about the world
**declarative (explicit) & mediated by the medial temporal lobe (MTL)
105
episodic knowledge =
personal events & experiences as well as emotional memories
**declarative (explicit) & mediated by the medial temporal lobe (MTL)
106
evidence for medial temporal lobe & declarative memory =
--rats learned a task 1st the cut hippocampus = could still do the task
--rats had their hippocampus cut before = couldn't do the task
therefore = hippocampus = memory consolidation
107
pathways of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) & memory
"swtichboard" = keeps track of relevant circuits by working memory. utilizes glutamate. when needs info later = receives info from 5 SSDNs & the thalamic ARAS
1) hippocampus
2) amygdala
3) rhinal cortex (perirhinal & entorhinal cortex)
108
hippocampus & memory =
* parahippocampus*
| - spatial memory
109
amygdala & memory =
encoding & storage of hippocampal-dependent memories
110
rhinal cortex & memory =
1) perirhinal = object recognition
2) entorhinal cortex = interface between the neocortex and hippocampus
- -important in formation & consolidation of episodic & spatial memories
- -sends projections to the dentate gyrus (part of hippocampus) which also aids in formation of episodic memories
111
brainstem/forebrain --> thalamus --> cortex (the 5SSDN)
5SSDN --> thalamic ARAS (IIn & TRn) -->
a) hippocampus --(dentate gyrus)
b) rhinal cortex --(perirhinal or entorhinal cortex)
c) amygdala
```
**IIn = interlaminar nucleus
TRn = thalamic reticular nucleus
```
112
two forms of LTP in the hippocampus
1) early-LTP (neurons (+) for short time 3-24h)
| - -new proteins creates & synaptic morphology changes
113
LTP & associativity
induction of LTP by (+) of 2 sets of synapses that are activated concurrently
(strengthen connections btw relevant info)
114
LTP & specificity "phenomenon"
LTP at one set of synapses on a postsynaptic cell whereas adjacent synapses that were not activates do not exhibit LTP-like changes
--thought to exclude non-relevant connections
EX: you can see/smell a rose even when one isn't infront of you. but it won't activate the p/ways of an onion.
115
non-declaritive memory characteristics
- -memory w/out awareness
- -experience alters behavioral performance unconsciously
- -implicit memories may be preferences, habits, dispositions that are inaccessible
- -NOT dependent on medial temporal lobe (MTL)
1) procedural/habit
2) priming
3) classical conditioning
4) non-associative
116
procedural /habit
motor & cognitive skills (ex-how to read)
- -context specific/ inflexible (tying your shoe)
- -damage to basal ganglia = deficits
117
procedural /habit is located where in the brain?
straitum
118
priming is found where in the brain?
neocortex
119
simple classical conditioning is found where in the brain?
1) emotional = amygdala which can be controlled by orbital prefrontal cortex (negative emotion) or medial prefrontal cortex (positive emotions) or nAc (positive emotions)
2) skeletal = cerebellum
120
non-associative is located where in the brain?
reflex pathways
121
priming =
--ability to recognize a stimulus due to a prior exposure. --activation of neocortex
122
non-associative learning
most primitive form of learning with basic nervous system
- -does not rely on association of 2 stimuli to elicit a response
- -non-associative learning = sensitization & habituation
123
sensitization =
biologically useful = cues CNS about novel stimuli
- -increased response to a stimulus
- -repeated novel//harmful stimuli
- -sensory-motor refle pathways
- -short-term potentiation (STP) enhance release of NT from the presynaptic terminal
124
habituation =
biologically useful = allows the organism to ignore stimuli that have lost their novelty or meaning
- -decreased response to stimulus
- -repeated benign stimuli
- -sensory-motor reflex pathways
- -short-term depression (STD) suppression of NT release from the pre-synaptic terminal
125
research lining implicit memory to emotions
non-conscious emotional signals may factor into decision making before conscious processes do.
--both mediated by the ventro-medial prefrontal cortex (VM PFC)
126
ventro-medial prefrontal cortex (VM PFC)
- -storage of personal info on rewards & punishments
- -region ~ = non-conscious (implicit) responses = intuition
- -lesions = little emotion & no empathy
- -perform well on IQ & memory tests//bad decision making
- -intact factual knowledge but emotional memories gone
- -reduced socially appropriate goal-directed behavior
- -PET scans = violent criminals = less blood to VM PFC
* **theory of mind & empathy***
127
characteristics of working memory
- real time // holds 7 (+/-2) but now possibly only 4
- goal-direction action
1) planning --developing & executing strategy
2) selection & suppression --attention to only important (+)
3) task monitoring --keeping relevant info "online"
128
Volume Synaptic Transmission
- -5- SSDN = axons are unmyelinated.
- -release of NTs = non-directed synapses & in response to intracellular Ca2+ from varicosities of the axons.
- -Numerous NT can diffuse freely = “omnidirectional”.
- -Long duration of modulatory effects
129
Thalamic Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS)
- -P/w's involved in producing the state of consciousness OR reticular activating system (RAS)
- -several circuits originate from brainstem & ascend --> intralaminar thalamic nuclei (ILn) & thalamic reticular nucleus (TRn) of the thalamus --> cerebral cortex
* *two main functional nuclear relay regions: ILn & TRn
- -intralaminar thalamic nuc
- -thalamic reticular nuc
130
Norepinepherine/Noradrenaline (NE/NA) System
--nucleus = locus coeruleus
--either inhibitory or excitatory
--funx: fight/flight // (-) emotion // non-REM sleep //
learning & memory // cognitive performance
131
Histamine (His) System
- -neurons in the hypothalamus = tuberomammilary nucleus (TMn)
- -effects in CNS = excitatory only
- -funx = arousal & attention // body energy // circadian rhythms // learning & memory
132
Serotonin (5-HT) System
--Raphe nuclei in brainstem
--inhibitory or excitatory influences
--funx = attention & arousal // Inhibition behavior //
(-) emotions // learning & memory // non-REM
133
Acetylcholine (ACh) System
- -nucleus basalis of Meynert (NB) & pontopeduncular nucleus (PPN)
- -NB = @ thalamus && PPM = midbrain
- -excitatory only action of ACh at the NMJ,
- -excitatory or inhibitory in the brain
- -funx = attention & arousal // learning & memory // REM sleep
Neurophysiology
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