1
Q
Positive Reinforcement
A
- Adding something the person likes right after a behavior
Example: Giving a sticker after cleaning up toys, cleaning up happens more often
2
Q
Negative Reinforcement
A
- Taking something away the person doesn’t like right after a behavior
Example: Ending a hard task when the person asks for a break, asking for a break happens more often
3
Q
How to Design Reinforcement Procedures:
A
- Choose a behavior you want to increase (like asking for help or following directions)
- Use preference assessments to find what the person enjoys or wants to avoid
- Clearly define the target behavior so anyone can recognize it
- Decide how and when the reinforcement will be given (immediately, after every time, or sometimes)
- Make sure the reward is something the person really likes or wants
4
Q
How to Evaluate if it’s Working
A
- Collect data on how often the behavior happens
- Watch for increases in the behavior over time
- If behavior isn’t improving, adjust the reinforcer, the timing, or how it’s delivered
- Fade out reinforcement slowly once the behavior is strong and consistent
5
Q
Differential Reinforcement
A
Use reinforcement to increase the behaviors we want and reduce the ones we don’t want, by being specific about what gets rewarded
6
Q
DRA - Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior
A
- Reinforce a more appropriate behavior that serves the same purpose
Example: Reward asking for help instead of throwing materials
7
Q
DRI - Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior
A
- Reinforce a behavior that can’t happen at the same time as the problem behavior
Example: Reinforce sitting in a chair (can’t walk away and sit at the same time)
8
Q
DRO - Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior
A
- Reward any behavior except the problem behavior
Example: Give a break if the student goes 5 minutes without yelling
9
Q
DRL - Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Behavior
A
- Reinforce the behavior when it happens less often
Example: Praise when the student only interrupts twice in 10 mins instead of five times in 10 mins
10
Q
DRH - Differential Reinforcement of High Rates of Behavior
A
- Reinforce the behavior when it happens more often
- Example: Reinforce when a client answers 4 questions instead of just 1
11
Q
DRD - Differential Reinforcement of Diminished Rates of Behavior
A
- Reinforce the behavior when it occurs lower than the criteria
Example: Reinforce when a client screams 3 times instead of the previous time which was 5 times
12
Q
With Extinction
A
- Stop rewarding the problem behavior
Example: Ignore whining but reward calm requests
13
Q
Without Extinction
A
- Keep responding to the problem behavior if needed, but focus on reinforcing better behaviors
Example: Still respond to a tantrum, but heavily reward calm asking
14
Q
How to Design It:
A
- Clearly define the problem and replacement behaviors
- Choose the type of differential reinforcement based on the situation
- Select motivating reinforcers
- Be specific about when and how reinforcement is delivered
- Teach and prompt the desired behavior
15
Q
How to Evaluate It:
A
- Take data on both behaviors (problem and replacement)
- Look for the problem behavior decreasing and the desired behavior increasing
- If there’s no progress, tweak the reinforcer or the timing
- Fade reinforcement gradually once the behavior improves
16
Q
Noncontingent Reinforcement (Time-Based Reinforcement)
A
- Also called Noncontingent Reinforcement (NCR)
- You give access to something preferred (like attention, toys, breaks) no matter what
- The reinforcer is delivered on a schedule, such as every 30 seconds or every 5 minutes
17
Q
Types of Time-Based Schedules:
A
- Fixed-Time (FT)
- Variable-Time (VT)
18
Q
Fixed-Time (FT)
A
- The reinforcer is given at the same time interval
Example: Every 2 minutes, give a high-five or let them play with a toy
19
Q
Variable-Time (VT)
A
- The reinforcer is given at different times, based on an average
Example: On average every 3 minutes, sometimes 2, sometimes 4
20
Q
Conditioned Reinforcer
A
- A neutral item that becomes rewarding after being paired with something naturally reinforcing
Example: A token becomes valuable because it means “you’ll get a prize soon”
21
Q
How to Establish Conditioned Reinforcers:
A
- Pair the item (like a token or point) with things the person already likes
Example: Give a token, then immediately
give candy
- Repeat this pairing until the person starts to want the token itself
- Eventually, the token on its own increasing good behavior
22
Q
How to Evaluate It:
A
- Watch for an increase in good behaviors
- Check if the person is motivated to earn tokens
- If it’s not working, make sure the backup rewards are motivating
- Over time, you can fade out the tokens and move to natural reinforcement
23
Q
Motivating Operation (MO)
A
- Changes how much someone wants a reinforcer and how hard they’ll work for it
Example: If a child is thirsty, juice becomes more powerful as a reward
- Thirst = MO that makes juice more reinforcing
24
Q
Discriminative Stimulus (SD)
A
- A signal that a reinforcer is available if the right behavior happens
Example:
* A teacher says “Clean up” and gives a sticker for cleaning
- The phrase “Clean up” is the SD, it tells the child that reinforcement is available for cleaning
25
How to Use MOs in Behavior Plans:
* Set up the situation so the person really wants the reward
Example: Don't give toys during free time if you plan to use them as a reward later
* Withhold the reinforcer for a short time so it becomes more motivating
Example: Have snack time
later if you're using food as
reinforcement
26
How to Use SDs in
Behavior Plans
* Use clear cues (like visuals, words, or signals) to show the person what behavior will earn reinforcement
Example: Show a picture of "Quiet Mouth" when teaching sitting quietly
* Be consistent with SDs so the person learns the pattern
27
Putting It Together
* Make sure the person wants the reward (MO)
* Give a clear cue that tells them what behavior to do
(SD)
* Reinforce the behavior when it happens
28
Examples:
Goal: Increase asking for a break
* MO: The child has been working for 10 minutes (they want a break)
* SD: A visual that says "You can ask for a break"
* Behavior: Child asks for a break
* Reinforcer: They get the break
29
Use MOs to make rewards more effective
* Make sure the person wants the reward before teaching
Example: Don't give free access to toys if you plan to use toys as a reward for completing tasks
30
Use SDs to give clear instructions or signals
* Teach the person that doing a behavior in response to the SD will earn them something good
Example: A timer goes off (SD), and the child knows it's time to ask for a break
31
Behavior is more likely to happen when:
* The person wants the reward (MO)
* They know what behavior leads to the reward (SD)
32
Simple Discrimination
* The person learns to do a behavior only when one specific cue (SD) is present
* One cue - One response - Reinforcement
Example:
* A child sees the color red and stops.
* Red is the SD that signals "stop," and the child learns to respond only to red, not green or yellow.
33
Conditional Discrimination
* The correct response depends on more than one cue or condition
* It usually involves matching or sorting based on a specific rule
Example:
* "Touch the red truck" when shown a red truck, red car, and blue truck.
* The child must pay attention to both color and object to make the right choice
34
How to Teach Simple Discriminations:
* Start with clear, obvious
differences between choices
* Use prompting and reinforcement
when the person responds correctly
* Gradually reduce prompts (fading) until they respond independently
* Use error correction when needed
35
How to Teach Conditional
Discriminations:
* Use multiple cues (like color + shape or spoken instruction + object)
* Teach matching-to-sample or following complex directions
* Use visuals or prompts to help at first, then fade
* Reinforce the correct response that depends on the right condition
36
How to Evaluate:
* Collect data on accuracy of
responding
* Check if the person:
Responds only when the
correct SD is present (simple)
Responds based on all relevant cues (conditional)
* Adjust teaching if errors are
frequent or progress stalls
37
Most-to-Least Prompting
* Start with the most help (e.g., full physical prompt), then give less help over time
* Good for teaching new or difficult skills
Example: Hand-over-hand touch elbow gesture no
prompt
38
Least-to-Most Prompting
* Start with no help and only add prompts if needed
* Good for learners who might get it without much support
Example: Wait verbal cue model physical prompt
39
Errorless Learning
* Use immediate, strong prompts so the person doesn't make mistakes while learning
* Helps avoid frustration or incorrect responses
Example: Immediately guiding the person to the right answer during early learning
40
Stimulus Prompt
Change the material or environment to make the right answer stand out
* Movement/gestural - point
* Positional - closer
* Redundancy - color
Example: Highlighting the correct answer in a matching task
1. Take data on correct/independent responses
2. See if the learner is becoming more independent
3. Fade prompts slowly so the learner doesn't
become prompt-dependent
4. If errors increase or learning slows, adjust the prompting strategy
41
Response Prompt
Help the person do the behavior
Example: Saying the correct answer, showing how to do it, or guiding their hands
* Verbal
* Physical
* Modeling
42
Prompt Fading
* Gradually removing help (prompts) so the person can do the behavior on their own
* Helps prevent prompt dependence
43
Prompt Delay
* Wait a few seconds before giving a prompt
* Gives the person a chance to respond independently first
Example:
Say "What's your name?" → wait 3 seconds → if no
answer, then say their name
Can use:
* Constant delay (same wait time every trial)
* Progressive delay (slowly increase wait time)
44
Response Prompt Fading
Gradually reduce the type or intensity of prompts
Examples:
* Physical to verbal prompts
* Full physical - partial physical - gesture - no prompt
45
Stimulus Fading
Change the materials to gradually remove the visual or physical cues that helped at first
Example: Teaching letter matching: Start with a bright outline letter, then fade the outline over time
46
How to Implement:
* Choose the right fading strategy based on the learner and skill
* Go slowly—don't remove prompts too quickly
* Track data to make sure the person is gaining independence
* Adjust if the learner is making frequent errors or not improving
47
Modeling
* Showing the person exactly how to do a behavior, so they can watch and copy it
* Can be used to teach new or complex skills
48
Live Modeling
A person shows the behavior in real time
Example: A therapist shows how to wash hands step by step
49
Video Modeling
A video shows someone doing the correct behavior
Example: A child watches a video of another child greeting a friend
50
Peer Modeling
Another learner or peer demonstrates the skill
Example: A classmate shows how to ask for a turn on the swing
51
How to Design Effective Modeling Procedures:
* Make sure the model demonstrates the behavior clearly
* Use simple language or no words, depending on learner's needs
* Repeat the model if needed
* Use reinforcement when the learner imitates correctly
* Combine with other supports like prompts
52
Instructions
Tell someone exactly what to do
How to Design Instructions:
* Use clear, simple words
* Make sure the person understands what to do
* Keep it short and specific
Example: Instead of "Be good," say "Sit in your chair with quiet hands"
53
Rules
Explain the expected behavior and what will happen if they follow (or don't follow) it
How to Design Rules:
* State what the person should do, and what the result will be
* Keep it positive when possible (focus on what to do, not what not to do)
Example: "If you finish your work, you get to pick a game" or "When you raise your hand, the teacher will call on you"
54
How to Evaluate:
* Check if the person follows the instruction without extra help
* Watch to see if the rule changes the behavior
If it's not working:
* Simplify the language
* Add prompts or models
* Make the consequence stronger or more meaningful
55
Shaping
Shaping means teaching a new behavior by rewarding small steps toward the goal
56
Chaining
* Chaining means teaching a big task by breaking it into smaller steps
* You teach each step one at a time, in order
* Useful for tasks with a clear beginning, middle, and end (like brushing teeth or getting dressed)
57
Forward chaining
* Teach the first step first, then the next, and so on.
Example: First pick up toothbrush - then put toothpaste - then brush
58
Backward chaining
* You help with all the steps except the last one, which the learner does.
Example: You do all steps of tying a shoe, but the learner pulls the last loop
59
Total task chaining
* Teach all steps at once, giving help as needed
* Good if the learner can do many steps already
60
Example: Washing hands
Steps: Turn on water → wet hands → soap → scrub → rinse → dry
* Forward chaining: Teach "turn on water" first, help with rest
* Backward chaining: You do all steps, but learner dries hands
* Total task: Teach all steps in order, help where needed
61
Trial-Based (Discrete Trial Training / DTT)
* Structured teaching: clear beginning, middle, and end
* One trial = instruction - response - consequence
* Repeated over and over (e.g., at a table, with
prompts and rewards)
* Good for new or hard skills
Example: Teacher says "Touch red" - child touches red - gets praise or a treat
62
Free-Operant
* Learner is free to respond at any time (no set trials)
* No clear start/stop for each trial
* Behavior is measured continuously (how often,
how long, etc.)
* Good for observing natural behavior or preferences
63
Independent group contingency
* Everyone has the same rule, but only gets the reward if they meet it
Example: "If you finish your work, you get a sticker."
* Each child earns it on their own
64
Dependent group contingency ("Hero")
* The whole group's reward depends on one person (or a few)
Example: "If Sarah finishes her work quietly, the whole class gets extra recess."
* Encourages peer support
65
Interdependent group contingency
* Everyone must meet the goal for the whole group to earn the reward
Example: "If the entire class stays on task for 10 minutes, you all get a prize."
* Promotes teamwork
66
Stimulus generalization
The behavior happens in new places, with new people, or with new materials
Goal: Make sure the learner can use the skill in real life, not just in the teaching setting
67
Response generalization
The learner uses different but similar behaviors to get the same outcome
Goal: Make sure the learner can use the skill in real life, not just in the teaching setting
68
Ways to Promote Stimulus Generalization (same response in different situations):
* Teach the skill in different locations
→ Practice saying "hi" at home, school, and the store
* Use different materials
→ Teach sorting with different colored or shaped objects
* Have different people teach it
→ Parents, teachers, or therapists give instructions
* Vary the instructions slightly
→ "Clean up," "Pick that up," "Put it away"
* Use natural reinforcers
→ Praise from peers, not just candy from a therapist
69
Ways to Promote Response Generalization (new responses for the same purpose):
* Reinforce different correct responses
→ Learner says "Hi," "Hey," or waves—all are okay greetings
* Model or teach variety in responding
→ Teach more than one way to ask for help
* Accept responses that are close enough
→ If learner says "bathroom" or "I need to go," both are accepted
70
Schedule Thinning
* Slowly give rewards less often (instead of every time)
Example: First give a sticker after every correct answer, then every 3, then randomly
* This helps the behavior last without constant reinforcement
71
Use Naturally Occurring Reinforcers
* Switch from artificial rewards (like candy) to real-life rewards
Example: Instead of giving tokens for saying "hello," the reward becomes positive social interaction (a smile or response from someone)
72
Train in Natural Settings
* Practice the behavior in real environments like home, school, stores, etc.
* This helps the learner use the skill when it counts
73
Teach Others to Reinforce
* Train parents, teachers, or peers to notice and reward the good behavior
Example: A teacher gives praise when a child raises their hand instead of shouting out
74
Use Behavior Traps
* Get the learner "hooked" into a natural system of reinforcement
Example: Teaching a child to read, now they enjoy books on their own, natural motivation keeps the reading going
75
Punishment
A consequence that makes a behavior happen less often in the future
76
Positive Punishment
* Add something after a behavior to reduce it
Example: Extra chores after hitting (adds an unpleasant task)
Overcorrection (Positive Punishment) Child must fix the problem and more
Example: If they scribble on a desk, they clean all the desks
77
Negative Punishment
* Take something away after a behavior to reduce it
Example: Take away tablet time for yelling
Time-Out (Negative Punishment): Child is removed from fun or attention after problem behavior
Example: Child is moved to a quiet area for 2 minutes after hitting
Response Cost (Negative Punishment): Takes away a reward or token
Example: Lose a point or sticker for not following directions
78
Emotional effects
* Crying, tantrums, withdrawal, aggression, or
anxiety after using a procedure
Example: A child starts screaming or becomes upset
during time-out
79
Elicited (reflex-like) effects
* Unlearned or automatic responses to a stimulus (not
taught behaviors)
Example: Flinching or tensing up when a loud noise or
correction happens
80
Monitor for Side Effects
* Even if a behavior plan works, side effects might make it unethical or harmful
* We must monitor closely and adjust the plan if unwanted effects show up
* Least restrictive and most positive methods should always come first
81
Emergent relations
New skills or connections that appear on their own after teaching related ones
Example:
Teach A = B and B = C → the learner figures out A = C (even though you didn't directly teach it)
82
Generative performance
Learner can apply what they learned to new situations, words, or problems
Example: Learner hears a new sentence and still understands it because they know the pattern
83
Teach with multiple examples
* Helps the learner notice patterns
* E.g., teach "bigger" with blocks, balls, and animals
84
Use stimulus equivalence training
* Teach connections like:
* Word "dog" = picture of dog (A = B)
* Picture of dog = spoken word "dog" (B = C)
Learner figures out "dog" (written word) = "dog" (spoken)
85
Use matrix training or recombinative generalization
* Teach some combinations (like "touch red ball," "throw blue cube")
* Learner can now do new combos like "throw red cube" on their own
86
Use relational frame theory (RFT) concepts
* Teach how things relate (bigger than, opposite of) so learners apply those relationships to new things
6TH EDITION TASK LIST
flashcards
Decks in class (9)
# Cards
-
A. Behaviorism and Philosophical Foundations25
-
B. Concepts and Principles91
-
C. Measurement, Data Display, and Interpretation56
-
D. Experimental Design34
-
E. Ethical and Professional Issues34
-
F. Behavior Assessment32
-
G. Behavior-Change Procedures86
-
H. Selecting and Implementing Interventions20
-
I. Personnel Supervision and Management27
