1
Q
what is the difference between sex and gender
A
Sex - Biological and determined by chromosomes
Gender - social and is determined by behaviours, attitudes etc
2
Q
What biological pattern of chromosomes do each sex have
A
Male - XY
Female - XX
3
Q
What three types of ways may a person refer to someones sex
A
- Chromosomal sex
- Gonadal sex (The posession of ovaries or testes)
- Genital sex (the posession of a vagina or penis)
4
Q
Definition of gender identity disorder
A
When a person does not feel like their gender suits their sex
5
Q
What does gender androgyny mean
A
When an individual has an equal balance of both male and female characteristics
6
Q
How does Olds believe gender androgyny occurs
A
Developmental stage - only select people reach
7
Q
How does Bem think gender adrogyny occurs
A
Differing cognitives styles - variety of behaviours can be adopted
8
Q
How does Orlofsky think gender androgony occurs
A
Behavioural style - learned by reinforcement
9
Q
Bem Sex Role Inventory - Procedure
A
Stage 1:
- 100 Americans students (50/50) asked to rate 200 traits as masculine or feminine
- 60 traits selected for the final inventory - 20 masc, 20 fem, 20 neutral
- The BSRI was then created - each participant would be asked to rate themselves on a 7 point likert scale for each of the 60 traits
- Results led to 1 of 4 categories :
- Masculine
- Feminine
- Androgynous
- Undifferentiated
10
Q
How did Bem ensure the test was reliable
A
- BSRI piloted on 1000 students to see if their result matched their own description - it did
- Some of the 1000 were tested again a month later
11
Q
What approach can we link with sex - role stereotypes and why
A
Social learning theory - imitating models
12
Q
What result on the BSRI would make an individual undifferentiated
A
Low masculine , Low feminine
13
Q
Two (+) positives of the Bem study
A
- High degree of validity - the gender/ gender neutral traits included on the inventory identified by 100 people (no experimenter bias)
- Test - retest vaidity high - they redid the test 1 month later and similar scores were revealed
- Bem concluded that androgyny was a very positive attitude/ choice
14
Q
What may a counterpoint be to Bem saying that androgyny is a positive choice
A
Some argue that it is dependent on what society you live in (e.g masculine people fit in easier in a patriarchal society - Batista boys) - Cultural bias
15
Q
1 negative of Bems study
A
Gender identity is too complex to be reduced to a single score - BSRI has been developed - e.g PAQ (Personal Attribute Questionnaire) - this still suggests that it is still quantifiable though
16
Q
What is the chromosomic pattern in Turners Syndrome
A
XO - only one X chromosome on 23rd pair
17
Q
What is the chromosomic pattern in Klinefelters Syndrome
A
XXY - additional X chromome on 23rd pair
18
Q
Approximately how many females are affected by Turners Syndrome
A
1 in 5000
19
Q
Females with Turners Syndrome have how many chromosomes
A
45
20
Q
What are some physical characteristics of Turners Syndrome
A
- Do not have a menstrual cycle
- Sterile (as ovaries do not develop)
- Breasts do not develop
- Webbed neck
21
Q
What are some psychological characteristics of Turners Syndrome
A
- Higher than average reading ability
- Poor visual memory
- Poor spatial awareness
- Lower than average mathematical skills
22
Q
What are some physical characteristics of Klinefelters Syndrome
A
- Reduced body hair
- May be some breast development
- Long gangly limbs
23
Q
What are some psychological characteristics of Klinefelters Syndrome
A
- Poorly developed language skills & reading ability
- Passive, shy and lack interest in sexual activity
- Have problems with memory and / or problem solving
24
Q
What are two positives of Atypical sex chromosomic patterns
A
- Studies of people with atypical sex chromosome patterns are useful as they contribute to our understanding of the nature - nurture debate in gender development
- continued research into atypical chromosomes is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnosis of Turners and Klinefelters Syndromes as well as more positive outcomes in the future - practical application
25
Three negatives of atypical chromosomes patterns
- Issues with leaping to conclusions - environmental and social influences are more responsible for the behavioural differences - nature vs nurture
- Generalisability as conclusions are drawn from unrepresentative sample (atypical to wider population)
- Those with the syndromes may look different leading to them being treated differently - can be difficult to assess the relative contribution of nature and nurture
26
What are the six main hormones
- Oestregen
- Testoterone
- Progesterone
- Oxytocin
- Melatonin
- Cortisol
27
What produces androgens and what are androgens
Androgens - male sex horomones
SRY gene causes testes to develop in an XY embryo
28
Which pair of chromosomes determines a persons sex
23rd
29
what is oestregen responsible for
Female hormone which determines characteristics and menstruation
30
what is progesterone responsible for
(Secondary female hormone) - assists with the menstrual cycle and plays a role in pregnancy
31
what is testoterone responsible for
Main sex hormone in men - controls the development of male sex hormones
32
what is oxytocin responsible for (and which sex produces more of it)
Controls key aspects of the reproductive system - including childbirth and lactation - referred to as the 'love hormone' - encourages bonding
33
what is cortisol responsible for
'Stress hormone' because of the way it assists the body in responding to stress
34
what are two positives supporting the biological theory of gender
- Dabbs et al - did a study of a prison population : found that offenders with highest levels of testoterone committed more violent and / or sexually motivated crimes
- Van Goozen et al : studied transgender undergoing hormone replacement therapy - male to females showed decreases in aggression and vice versa
35
Three negatives of the biological theory of gender (hormones)
- Tricker et al - double blind procedure - 43 males given 10 weekly testoterone injections or placebo - no significant differences between groups behaviour were identified
- Rodin - feminist - claims PMS is a male social construction used to demonstrate female behaviours
- A lot of studies have done on a small scale or on animals (Van de Poll et al) so hard to generalise
36
What does ARMM stand for (mediational processes)
Attention
Retention
Motivation
Motor Reproduction
37
What is the process called where a child attaches themselves to a person who is seen to be like themselves or someone they want to be like
Identification
38
Two positives on social learning theory and gender
- Smith and Lloyd (1978) 4-6 months babies were dresses half the time in boys' clothes and the other half in girls'. - When participants were asked to play with them they assumed gender based on clothes they wore and offered the 'boys' hammers and the 'girls' dolls - suggests that gender is learned at a very early age via role models
- SLT may be better than Biological approach in explaining gender changes - over the years there have been big changes in how we perceive gender and gender expectations but there hasnt been a big change in how we view sex
39
Two negatives on social learning theory and gender
- Not a developmental theory - doesn't explain how learning processes change with age - motor reproduction changes with age : Dubin - although the child may take note of behaviour of same-sex role model selection and imitation does not occur until later stages of life
- Kohlberg (cognitive) would agree with some aspects of SLT - identification / role - models but would agree with Dubin that a lot of behaviours might only manifest later in 'gender constancy' stage
40
what are the 3 gender stages and the ages associated with them - Kohlbergs theory (ISC)
Stage 1 - Gender identity - 2-3 years old
Stage 2 - Gender stability - 4-6 years old
Stage 3 - Gender constancy - 6-7 years old
41
Stage 1 - gender identity (what happens during this stage)
- Child is aware that they are either male or female
- can categorise others as male or female by making judgements based on superficial characteristics
- thinks based off this that other peoples gender can change
42
Stage 2 - gender stability (what happens during this stage)
- Child realised that their own gender is fixed over time
- Still thinks that gender can for others dependent on the situation
43
Stage 3 - gender constancy (what happens during this stage)
- Gender remains fixed over time (for both themselves and other people)
-develop their own gender role through looking at role models (SLT!!)
44
What did piaget say about gender (egocentrism and conservation)
- Described all children as egocentric (assume everyone sees the world the same way as they do) until the ages of 6 and 7
- when they begin to decentre they realise that not everyone has the same views and opinions as they do
- conservation : older children acquire the understanding that properties of an object remain the same when its outward appearance changes
45
What are 2 positives for the cognitive explanations (Kohlberg)
- Slaby & Frey - children presented with split screen images of males/females performing the same task - young children spent equal time looking at both , those in gender constancy spent more time looking at same-sex gender models
- Munroe - cross cultural evidence - Kenya , Somoa, Nepal
46
What are 2 (+) negatives for the cognitive explanations (Kohlberg)
- Children adopt gender appropriate behaviour before gender constancy - Bandura et al : reported that children 'felt good' about playing with certain gendered toys
- Methodological issues : Kohlberg used interviews with the youngest being 2/3 - lack appropriate vocab to express themselves - low validity
- Theory too simple
- Theory developed in 1966 - outdated and idea that sex and gender are the same
47
What is a schema
A collection of beliefs or ideas on a particular topic - derived from experience
48
How do Martin and Halverson agree with Kohlberg
- Childrens understanding of gender develops with age
- Children develop their understanding of gender by actively learning how to be male or female not just by passively learning / watching and imitating role models
49
How did Martin and Halverson disagree with Kohlberg
- the process of understanding gender occurs before gender constancy is reached :
once a child has established a gender identity they will begin to search the environment for information that encourages development of gender schema
- stereotypes affect later behaviour
50
By what age has a child developed a stereotyped schema
6
51
What will a child begin to do with conflicting information once they have developed a stereotyped schema
- Forget , misremember or disregard conflicting information
52
Study (1983) -direct behaviour & self - understanding (Martin & Halverson)
- 20 children aged 6
- Showed them 20 photos (10 x gender consistent & 10 x gender inconsistent) and asked them to recall one week later (avoids maintenance rehearsal)
findings:
- children more likely to remember photographs of gender consistent behaviour than gender inconsistent
- tended to change the gender of person carrying out gender inconsistent behaviour during recall to make it fit better with their own gender schema
53
Ingroups & Outgroups - what does this mean
Ingroup - once a child knows what group they belong in they focus more attention on this group
Outgroup - the other sex (the group they do not identify with)
54
What are 2 (+) positives of Martin and Halversons theory
- Campbell et al - used 3 groups of babies : 3 months ,9 months and 18 months - used visual preference technique
3 month old babies showed a slight preference towards same sex babies (BANDURA!)
both boys and girls preferred to watch in group activities - boys have stronger drive to tune in to their ingroup
babies develop gender schemas before they can even talk
- Martin et al (1995) - 4&5 year olds (gender stability) shown range of toys , before they played with a toy they were told whether it was for boys or girls - the label of the toy affected the preference the child gave it (conservation - Piaget)
- Theory can account for the ideas that young children hold fairly rigid and fixed gender attitudes - ideas that go against are discounted or ignored by child
55
What is a negative of Martin and Halversons theory
- Cannot explain where schemas originate & why they develop : ignores impact of parents, culture - nature vs nurture
56
What is the order of stages in Freuds psychosexual stages
- Oral
- Anal
- Phallic
- Latency
- Genital
57
What is a way of remebering Freuds psychosexual stages
Old , Age , Pensioners , Like , Guiness
58
What are the 3 different parts of the psyche and what are the principles attached to them
Id - Pleasure principle
Superego - Morality principle
Ego - Reality principle
59
When does (what stage) Freud say gender devlopment occurs
Phallic stage - Age 3-7
60
How does Freud refer to children who are either nor masculine nor feminine
Bisexual
61
What is the Oedipus complex (use key terms - CA , GI)
Boy develops incenstuos feelings towards mother - sees father as rivalry
- Boy becomes scared father will find out and punish him through castration - Castration Anxiety
- To resolve conflict - Gender Identification - boy begins to want to be like father
62
What is the Electra complex and who came up with the theory (use key terms - PE, GI)
Jung
- Opposite of Oedipus complex - Girl develops feelings towards father
- Experiences Penis Envy - blames mother for lack of penis
- When they understand they cannot have a penis they desire a baby instead - Gender Identification and what to be like mother
63
Identification and internalisation - when does it happen and what does it mean
Occurs towards the end of the phallic stage - children resolve their conflicts by identifying with the same sex parent
Identification develops a superego (adopting parents morals) they then internalise this
64
Little Hans case study - Freuds interpretation
- Hans - 5 year old boy with morbid fear of being bitten by a horse - fear stemmed from seeing a horse collapse and die on street
- Freuds interpretation - suggested his fear of being bitten by a horse was represented through his fear of castration - transferred fear through defence mechanism of displacement
65
One positive of the psychodynamic approach in gender development
- Little Hans case study - often longitudinal showing long-term impact of theory, more in depth qualitative data
66
2 (+) negatives of the psychodynamic approach in gender development
- Horney - what about womb envy? - penis envy theory conducted in culturally patriarchal society - theory is androcentric
- Freuds theory relies heavily on nucleur families (heterosexual) - in his theory other families would not be able to cope with Oedipus or Electra complex :
Gdomback et al : single parent family children went on to develop healthy gender identities
Green : studied children raised by gay or transgender parents and only 1/37 children had a 'non-typical' gender identity
- Freuds methodology was case studies - children often lie which impacts validity, lack of scientific figures , findings are not representative so cannot generalise to wider population
