Psychology > Gender > Flashcards

Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

What are sex role stereotypes?

A

The behaviours believed to be appropriate based on a person’s sex assigned at birth (behaviours based on evolutionary biology)

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2
Q

What is a gender stereotype?

A

Behaviours believed to be appropriate based on a person’s gender identity (behaviours caused by conformity, beliefs, social learning, culture)

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3
Q

What is evolutionary biology?

A

Idea that evolution has caused males and females to become physically and behaviourally different

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4
Q

What is the culture/fashion definition of androgyny?

A

Refers to a look that is neither male or female, an androgynous look mixing male and female forms of self expression (e.g short hair and suits, makeup and jewelry)

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5
Q

What is the psychological definition of androgyny?

A

Having a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics, outlined by research from Sandra Bem, who believed that androgyny was linked to psychological wellbeing
Androgynous people can be ‘masculine’ when appropriate and ‘feminine’ when appropriate, can draw on a wider ranger of behaviours than those limited by gender stereotypes.

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6
Q

What was the questionnaire developed by Sandra Bem to measure view of gender idenity?

A

Bem Sex Role inventory (BSRi)

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7
Q

What is a gene?

A

A section of DNA molecule that codes for characteristics of offsrping

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8
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

Structure that contains many genes

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9
Q

What are the male and female chromosomes?

A

XY and XX

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10
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemicals produced by body that control activity of cells and organs, hormones affect the development and functioning of the brain and the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics

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11
Q

What hormones are involved in sex development/gender behaviour?

A

Testosterone
Oestrogen
Progesterone

(Oxytocin, cortisol)

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12
Q

What happens at 6 weeks of gestation?

A

At 6 weeks, SRY gene contained in Y chromosome triggers release of testosterone
In absence of testosterone, develops as female

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13
Q

What happens at puberty?

A

Hormones trigger sexual maturationW

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14
Q

What are the secondary sexual characteristics of females?

A

Growth of breasts
Underarm/pubic hair
Wider hips
Changes in distribution of fat

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15
Q

What are the secondary sexual characteristics of males?

A

Growth of hair on face and body
Physical growth
Muscular development
Deepening voice

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16
Q

What do we learn about gender from Caster semenya?

A

Gender is complex, genes interact with hormones to shape behaviour
Clear links between biological sex and psychological gender which are seen as normal/typical
Not everyone has typical gender development

Definition of gender based solely on biology is both reductionist and ethically problematic

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17
Q

227 hypogonadal men (where testes fail to produce enough testosterone) were given testosterone therapy for 180 days. Who did this study and what did they find?

A

Wang (2000). She found that the men had improved sexual function, libido, mood and muscles. This showed testosterone exerts a powerful influence on sexual arousal.

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18
Q

Which psychologist developed a theory of ‘gender neutrality’ which stated that environmental influences were more important than biological sex? What was his famous case?

A

John Money. He encouraged the parents of a twin called Bruce Reimer to bring him up as a girl (Brenda) when a circumcision operation left him without a penis. When Bruce found out the truth he became David; he later committed suicide.

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19
Q

What do hormones do? What group of hormones does testosterone come from?

A

Regulate the activity of certain cells and organs. The group is androgens.

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20
Q

PMS is a recognised medical condition caused by fluctuating hormone levels during a woman’s menstrual cycle. Who objects to this label and why?

A

Rodin (1992) claims that PMS is a social construction, not a biological fact, which encourages damaging stereotypes of irrational women.

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21
Q

An Australian newspaper reported that an 800m runner had an intersex condition. Who was the runner and what was the condition?

A

Caster Semenya. She had no uterus or ovaries, undescended testes and external female genitalia.

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22
Q

A limitation of biological explanations of gender is that they are reductionist. Why is this an issue?

A

They reduce gender to the level of chromosomes and hormones and ignore or underplay alternative explanations.

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23
Q

What causes congenital adrenal hyperplasia and what effect does it have on the genitals?

A

It causes high prenatal levels of male hormones such as testosterone. It can make the genitals ambiguous.

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24
Q

Oxytocin is a hormone sometimes called the ‘love hormone’. What are some of the functions it induces?

A

It starts contractions during labour, stimulates lactation and reduces levels of the stress hormone cortisol.

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25
Which set of chromosomes determine the sex of a baby and what shape are they?
The 23rd pair which are XX for a female and XY for a male. They are called this because this is what they look like under a microscope.
26
There is evidence that testosterone does not have such a strong effect on men’s behaviour. Who did this study and what was found?
O’Connor et al. (2004) found increasing testosterone levels did not significantly increase sex drive or changes in anger levels.
27
Who claims that gender roles around the world are much more a consequence of social norms than biology?
Geert Hofstede et al. (2010)
28
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a rare genetic disorder. Who did a study on newborn girls and what did they find?
Berenbaum and Haums (1992) found that families said their girls were ‘tomboys’, liked playing with boys’ toys and were more aggressive.
29
What is Turner's syndrome?
Appear 'female' at birth Instead of XX, has XO (missing one X) Can be diagnosed before birth through amniocentesis, or detection of heart issues associated
30
What is Klinefelter's syndrome?
Appear 'male' at birth Instead of XY, has XXY Cannot be diagnosed perinatally, often not diagnosed until teenage/early adulthood
31
What are the physical characteristics of Turner's syndrome?
Short stature Low hairline Fold of skin Elbow deformity Small finger nails No menstruation Poor breast development Shield shaped thorax Underdeveloped ovaries, may not have uterus
32
What are psychological features of Turner's syndrome?
Higher than average reading ability Spatial awareness and visual memory are weaker Mathematical ability is lower than normal Social immaturity Problems with peer group, fitting in
33
What are physical characteristics of Klinefelter's syndrome?
Taller, less muscular than males their age Broader hips, longer legs Weaker bones Lower energy level Smaller penis and testicles Delay/partial puberty Less facial and body hair
34
What are psychological characteristics of Klinefelter's syndrome?
Poorer language and reading ability Lacking in confident, shy Lack of sexual interest Lesser ability as solving problems Greater difficulty handle stressful situations
35
What was Kohlberg's cognitive model of gender?
All cognitive development is shaped by maturation, so a child's understanding of gender increases in line with their brain development Children go through stages in their understanding of gender, similar to Piaget's stages of cognitive development
36
Who was Piaget and what were his stages of development?
Swiss psychologist, theory of cognitive development Children's thinking gets more sophisticated as they get more physically mature Sensorimotor (0-2) Pre-operational (2-7) Concrete operational (7-11) Formal operational (11+)
37
What were the key ideas of Piaget?
Until 6/7, a child's thinking is egocentric Children's understanding develops as they grow in knowledge and experience: from an egocentric to a de-centred viewpoint Conservation, understanding that, whilst outward appearance may change, the essence of an object does not.
38
What is stage 1 of Kohlberg's theory?
Gender identity 2-3 Gender is all about appearance and labelling Dress = girls, short hair = boy At this age a child can't understand the idea of a boy in girls clothing. If someone is wearing 'girl clothes', they must be a girl.
39
What is stage 2 of Kohlberg's theory?
Gender stability ~4, children acquire stable view of their own gender Realise they will always be a boy/girl Boys become men, girls become women Easily confused by appearances, a man with long hair might be described as a woman Don't have a stable view of other's gender Understanding of gender is still superficial Learnt to associate activities with being 'male' or 'female': someone dressing a doll is a girl, someone playing with trucks is a boy, therefore a girl playing with a truck is confusing.
40
What is stage 3 of Kohlberg's theory?
Gender constancy ~6 Realise that gender doesn't change, stays same over time and in different situations Other people's gender stays the same A boy can still be a boy and do 'girl stuff' and vice versa Now know gender is about 'being', goes deeper than outward appearance
41
What did Damon's research into Kohlberg find?
Found that 4 year olds thought it OK for George to play with dolls, but 6 year olds NOT OK
42
What did Bussey and Bandura's research into Kohlbergs theory find?
4 year olds 'felt good' playing with gender appropriate toys, and 'felt bad' playing with toys for the opposite gender
43
What did Bem's research into Kohlberg find?
Found that 40% of 3-5 year olds could demonstrate gender constancy if they were shown a naked photo
44
What is schema?
Mental map, a set of expectations Eg: doing same thing on Saturday, mind forms schema for Saturday because of associations
45
What is Gender Schema Theory?
Once a child knows they are a boy/girl (2-3) Start to notice 'boy stuff' and 'girl stuff' in their environment Form a mental map (schema) on how to behaviour like a boy/girl
46
What is the in-group and out-group?
Once children realise they are boy/girl, want to belong to that gender group Adopt behaviours, attitudes that align with their gender, reject those that disagree with them
47
What is a strength of Gender Schema Theory?
Can explain why gendered behaviours vary Also point to ways in which gendered behaviour can be changed
48
How do Gender Schema Theory skew attention?
Boys will adopt and notice new male behaviours, may ignore behaviours if they are inconsistent with their male schema
49
What is a negative of gender schemas?
Limit the range of behaviours that are deemed acceptable Real men don't cry, women are unable to be aggressive or in charge
50
Who proposed gender schema theory?
Martin and Halverson
51
What U drives behaviour in Freud's view?
Unconscious desires
52
Outline the Oedipus Complex
1. Boy becomes aware of feelings for mother 2. Knows that mother is with father 3. Boy imagines father will be angry if aware of feelings for mother 4. Male child suffers castration anxiety 5. To resolve, boy identifies with father, and adopts their gender behaviours.
53
Outline the Electra Complex
1. Girl sees self as in competition with mother for fathers affection 2. Girl experiences 'penis envy', blames mother for lack of penis 3. Girl substitutes penis envy with desire to have children 4. Comes to identify with mother, adopts gender behaviour
54
What evidence did Rekers and Morey (1990) find to support the psychodynamic explanation of gender?
Interviewed 49 boys, 3-11, rater gender development 75% of those rater 'gender disturbed' lacked a father figure Seen as supporting theory
55
What evidence did Bos and Sandfort (2010) find to challenge the validity of the psychodymanic explanation of gender?
Compared children from traditional families with children raised by lesbian parents Found no difference in gender identity or psychosocial adjustment
56
What is culture?
The values, beliefs, assumptions, behavioural norms and moral standards shared by a particular group; things that are widely accepted and not questioned.
57
What are assumptions?
Those things which we believe to be important, often revealed through social norms and expectations. Assumptions are often revealed through social norms and expectations
58
What were the characteristics of the Tchambuli tribe?
women were dominant and organised, men were decorative and emotional
59
What were the characteristics of the Arapesh tribe?
Were gentle and responsive Expressing what Westerners would see as feminine qualities
60
What were the characteristics of the Mundugumor tribe?
Were aggressive and hostile Expressing what Westerners would see as masculine qualities
61
What did Buss find across 67 cultures?
Males want an attractive partner Females want a partner with resources
62
What does evolutionary theory propose about gender behaviour?
Men: attractiveness is a code, showing a woman has good genes - she will have healthy offspring Women: Resourceful, high-status partner will be a good provider
63
What are forms of media?
Traditional (newspapers, magazines, books, TV) Digital (social media, websites)
64
What stereotypes did Bandura and Bussey (1999) find in the media?
Males: independent, ambitious Women: dependent, advice seekers
65
What stereotypes did Furnham and Farrager (2000) find in the media?
Men shown in in professional contexts Women shown in domestic settings
66
What is Atypical Gender Development/ Gender Identitiy Disorder (gender dysphoria)?
Psychological issue in which a person feels a mismatch between biological sex and gender identity Feel uncomfortable with, and distressed by assigned gender
67
What does brain sex theory/biological approach say about GID?
Caused by brain structures usually found in opposite sex Zhou 95' found that stria terminalis (orchestrates emotional and behavioural responses to stress) in MtF trans people was smaller than in males (female typical) Suggests people with GID transition in order to align their gender with how their brain makes them feel. Further research found number of neurones in stria terminalis were female typical
68
What are the criticisms of brain sex theory and biological approach to GID?
All participants were receiving hormone therapy to help transition, and this may have caused the changes in the brain Brain measurements may not be cause of dysphoria, rather the consequences of treatment
69
What have twin studies found about GID?
Found high concordance levels between identical twins in relation to GID If one identical twin had GID, 39% the identical twin would also have it, whilst non-identical twins had 0%
70
What is the role of smartphones in GID?
In 2012 there were less referrals to GIDS in NHS 2022, more than 5000 Smartphone ownership and social media have exploded since 2012 Wrong to say that smartphones cause GID, just may cause more awareness for people to go and receive a referral.
71
What is the role of co-morbidity in GID?
30% of children referred to GIDS have ASD diagnosis/are neurodivergent Diagnosis of mental health issues like anxiety and depression in young people have also increased significantly in the last 10 years.
72
What is the social constructionism explanation of GID?
What if gender is an idea, and society requires people to be masculine or feminine Gender dysphoria is then a 'refusal to conform', so people with GID are not unwell, instead gender role stereotypes are stereotypical and need to be changed
73
What evidence does Papua New Guinea provide for social constructionism as an explanation for GID?
The Sambia Tribe, genetic condition (5-alpha reductase deficiency) means that some biological males appear female at birth (undescended genitalia) Relatively common condition in the tribe, known as females then males amongst Sambia Western cultural influence means that females then males became seen as an illness
74
What is the Freudian social psychological explanation of GID?
Freudian researchers have suggested that boys reduce separation anxiety by closely identifying with their mother, so grow up with a female sense of self.
75
What is the cognitive explanation of GID?
GID could arise when a child has a more flexible gender schema compared to their peers, and has less stereotypical views of her own gender identity For example, a girl playing football with older brother may have a different schema, so ends up being more androgynous and may even be confused about her gender, and may develop GID
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