sex role stereotypes and androgyny
define sex role stereotype
a shared set of expectations that society has about normal or acceptable behaviours, traits, and qualities for men and women
-they develop as a result of the socialisation process
-they become ‘rules’ of society that are followed by everyone
evaluation:
-research to support they exist. majority nursery and primary teachers female. early years teaching seen as a female profession - more nurtuing qualities. suggests caring careers will be female dominated. (however, society is changing)
-real life applications. parents can create learning experiences that reinforce the idea of sex roles can be equally appropriate for males and females. make choices based on free will. (real life eg biological differences contribute to stereotypes)
androgyny
outline bem’s sex role inventory study
suggested androgyny was a positive and desirable trait to have. BSRI measured androgyny.
1.asked 100 american undergraduates which traits they thought were desirable for men and women.
2.list of 40 was made (20 masc, 20 fem, added 20 neutral to control social desirability bias)
3.ps rate themselves on a 7 point likert scale
4.numerical scores are added up and they are then categorised - masc, fem, andr. later category ‘undifferentiated’ was added after criticisms (low m+f)
evaluation:
-reliable measurement of andr, achieved good test-retest reliability, demonstrates consistency. (has issues of validity, american students so lacks population validity + does it have temporal validity?)
-rwa, improve children’s psychological health, parents encourage children to adopt characteristics of both genders to reduce distress that can lead to depression/sh, educated to not be restricted by gender + link to careers. (however, more british raising children as gender neutral - evoked critique from those who don’t believe in ‘gn’. = work to do to promote andr.
chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender
briefy outline the role of chromosomes and hormones (testosterone, oestrogen, oxytocin) in sex and gender
-sex chromosomes contain genetic material that controls the release of androgens - determine genetalia
-testosterone produced mainly by testes, more in males, male genetalia, brain development
-oestrogen produced mainly by ovaries, more in females, prod during pregnancy, not involved in genetalia development
-oxytocin - calmness, prod by pituitary gland, testosterone dampens effect
evaluation:
-animal support, inject rats with oxy antagonist after birthing, delay in maternal behaviours, normal behaviour seen after antagonist wore off. shows important role of oxy in monthers bonding to young. (cant generalise)
-research role of testosterone in masculine development, studied males with hypogonadism, gave men testosterone therapy for 180 days (muscle strength, body shape, libido). shows testosterone influence on male development and sexual arousal. (double bind placebo study, increased testosterone on healthy young men. no significant increase in libido and aggression. shows in ‘normal’ adults, no observable effects)
chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender
study evidence for the chromosome explanation (bruce/brenda)
-bruce + brian indentical twin boys. taken to be circumcised, complications where bruces penis burnt off
-got attention of dr money, believed we are all were gn until age 2, and bruce could be raised as female.
-given oestrogen to encourage female puberty, monitor progress by comparing to brother
dr did not mention:
-‘brenda’ considered a tomboy to everyone, engaged in ‘boys play’, struggled to make friends, affected mh
-15 = made aware of truth, became david and did plastic surgery for a penis. was depressed and marriage broke down, committed suicide
atypical sex chromosome patterns
summary of klinefelter’s syndrome
cause: xxy configuration in males, affects 1 in 1000
physical: taller, wide hips, less facial hair, prominent breast tissue, infertility
psychological: poor langauage skills, risk of anxiety disorders, struggle w/ problem solving and memory
treatments: testosterone supplements, but may still have below average lifespan. there’s no ‘cure’
atypical sex chromosome patterns
summary of turner’s syndrome
cause: missing or partially missing x chromosomes in females, affects 1 in 2000. ovaries fail to develop
physical: shorter, moles, broad chest, wide neck, infertility, medical complications eg heart, hearing and vision, and high bp
psychological: high reading ability, social immaturity, low performance on; spatial ability, maths, and memory
treatments: growth hormone, oestrogen and progesterone supplements, but slightly lower life span
cognitive explanations
describe and evaluate kohlbergs theory of gender development
-childrens understanding of gender occurs in 3 stages:
1. gender identity - label themselves and others correctly based on physical appearance
2. gender stability - aware their gender stays the same over time
3. gender constancy - gender is constant and stays the same for everyone, despite physical changes
-at stage 3 they seek out gender appropriate role models to observe, identify with, and imitate
eval:
+holistic theory, considers biology (brain maturation), cognition (thinking), and social learning (imitation in stage 3). (however, doesn’t explain how gender understanding develops. freud explains how masc and fem role models influence understanding)
+cross cultural support - stages are seen in different cultures. studied m/c argentinian children, 3+ years successfully answer gender identity qs , judgements of constancy got better with age.
(however, methodological issues - childs view on gender constancy is based on societal norms. When being tested on gender constancy, they are simply responding to social norms and we cant be sure they fully understand the difference between boys and girls
cognitive explanations
describe and evaluate martin and halversons gender schema theory
-2-3 years old, children develop gender identity, seek out appropriate behaviours for their own gender
-ignore info that doesn’t fit their gender schema
-leads to development of in/outgroup schemas - avoid behaviours of outgroup, seek info about their ingroup schemas
-as children get older, they start to show gender segregation
eval:
+research support - children under 6 likely to remember photos of gender appropriate. a week later, shows they tended to change the gender of the person in the gender inappropriate photo. shows children search for info to support their schemas. (however, 2yr olds with high gender knowledge didnt have preferences to play with gender specific toys - maybe schemas dont develop this early)
+holistic theory, conisders cognitive factors (interpret info to make schemas), and env (experiences shape schemas, how masc/fem they become). (however, doesnt consider biology. kohlberg considered brain maturation)
+can explain cross cultural differences - eg ghana trad roles, uk delay marriage and children for careers. theory reflects different childhood experiences and therefore schema development. (however, deterministic. we have no free will to choose our career as its determined by our experiences and schemas. (however, wouldnt explain how some go against gender schemas)).
psychodynamic explanations
outline and evaluate psychodynamic explanations of gender development
-first 2 stages considered bi as gender identity does not exist, no visibile differences in behaviour
-gender identity resolved in phallic stage (oedipus and electra complex resolved
-then begin to notice anatomical differences
-(explain complexes, resolved by identifying and internalising gender identity)
eval
+support of identification of same sex parent - boys with GDysphoria assessed on ‘gender disturbance’. strong were more effeminate. 75% of those had neither bio father or substitute living with them. shows being raised with no father can impact identification. (children raised by lesbian parents less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes. absence of father doesn’t affect gender identity development)
-unscientific research - complexes are nearly impossible to investigate as they are unconscious. cant be certain the absence of the same sex parent truly has an impact on GI development. also, theory is outdated, tech was not yet evident, link to bio approach
-gender bias - fail to acknowledge female GDev, women ‘mystery’ to him. beta biased, women were an afterthought. also, fem psychologist argued that womb envy was more powerful - nurture and sustain life
SLT
outline and evaluate the social learning explanation of gender development
-gender is learned from observing people around us
-identify with and imitate same sex models
-mediational processes
-direct and indirect (vicarious) reinforcement
-differential reinforcement
eval:
+research support - children from trad families showed more gender stereotyping than the ones from egalitarian families. parents model to their children that certain toys are associated with certain genders (doesn’t discuss the idea that models change over time. peers are primary socialising agent, not parents)
+research support - boys more leisure activities and the activities got more masculine with age. more time in sports and games, girls TV. env has influenced children in terms of activities. also, research from remote parts of the world - women are leadsers and food suppliers in some tribes
-nomothetic - cannot explain gender differences in twins/siblings. eg one twin may be more masculine than the other despite having the same genes + env. if slt was the true cause, their characteristics would be the same. idiographic would be more suitable for complex area. also, cant explain how gender understanding and identity changes with age. assumes there are no developmental stages contradicts kohlbergs theory
culture
outline and evaluate the influence of culture on gender development
media
outline and evaluate the influence of media on gender development
atypical gender development
outline and evaluate biological explanations of atypical gender development
atypical gender development
outline and evaluate social-psychological explanations of atypical gender development
