1
Q
What do geologists do?
A
STUDY ROCKS STUDY EARTHQUAKES STUDY VOLCANOES STUDY FOSSILS STUDY TOPOGRAPHY—CONTINENTS - OCEANS, MOUNTAIN BELTS, RIVERS, GLACIERS
CLIMATE
GEOCHEMISTRY
GEOPHYSICS
STUDY PLANETS, MOONS, ASTEROIDS, AND METEORITES
2
Q
what are the careers in geology
A
- ECONOMIC GEOLOGY SEARCH FOR PETROLEUM AND MINERAL DEPOSITS
2.HYDROLOGY SEARCH FOR GROUNDWATER REDUCE POLLUTION AND MISUSE of GROUNDWATER
- GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING = WORK OUT HOW BEST TO SITUATE AND BUILD THINGS (E.G., TOPOGRAPHY and ROCK STRENGTH) = OILFIELD ENGINEERING
- ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY MINIMIZE ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE DUE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF OILFIELDS AND MINES, AND OTHER HUMAN ACTIVITIES
- OTHER (PARTLY GEO.ENGINEERING, PARTLY ENVIRONMENTAL GEOL.) TRY TO PREDICT AND REDUCE THE DAMAGE DONE BY EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANOES, AND LANDSLIDES TRY TO PREDICT CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS EFFECTS.
3
Q
degree programs for geology at the u of s
A
GEOLOGY *
GEOPHYSICS *
PALEOBIOLOGY (IN CONJUNCTION WITH BIOLOGY DEPT.) *
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCE
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY -IS TAUGHT IN THE DEPT. OF CIVIL, GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING, IN THE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
4
Q
what are TYPES OF TIME AND HOW IT IS MEASURED
A
- NUMERICAL TIME(deep time)
… When an event occurred … its age measured from the present. This is done mainly by measuring the relative amounts of certain radioactive elements in a rock and their stable radiogenic daughter elements.
- RELATIVE TIME
… Pertains to the sequence of events, regardless of knowing the actual age. … Based on such things as:
- Stratigraphic succession (Superposition)
- Fossil succession.
- Cross-cutting structures.
- Deformation.
5
Q
TERMINOLOGY OF NUMERICAL TIME
A
A. YEARS AGO (From the present – taken to be 1960) e.g.1. … EARTH formed between about 4.54 and 4.57 billion years ago.
B. LENGTH OF TIME FOR SOMETHING TO HAPPEN, regardless of the actual age.
C. THE NOTATION OF DEEP TIME We use several different ways of writing time information, most of it in varieties of shorthand.
6
Q
how to write Time Before The Present
A
=1 kilo-annas Before Present
(1kaBP)
7
Q
how to write Age of Rock or Event
A
This rock has an age of 3ka
8
Q
how to write Passage of Time
A
kilo-anna (2ka) of misery = 2X10^3years (y) or anna (a) of misery
9
Q
whats another way of writing millions of years
A
mega-anna (Ma); or mega-years (My)
10
Q
whats another way of writing billions of years
A
giga-anna (Ga) or giga-years (Gy)
11
Q
when was the earth formed
A
Earth formed at about 4,570 Ma(millions).” or: “Earth formed at about 4,570X106years ago (ya)”.
or using billions
Earth formed at about 4.57 Ga.” Or: “Earth formed at about 4.57X109ya.”
12
Q
3 ways to measure space/distance
A
1.METRIC MEASUREMENT (SI) International System of Units)
Some common portions used when describing rocks: 1/100 m = 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01m = 10-2 m 1/1,000 m =1 millimetre (mm)
The common multiple used for describing distances: 1000 m = 1X103 m = 1X106 mm = 1 kilometre (km)
- ASTRONOMICAL UNIT (SYMBOL AU) THE AVERAGE DISTANCE FROM EARTH TO THE SUN IS CALLED AN ASTRONOMICAL UNIT; 1AU = 150x106 KM
- LIGHT YEAR (ly) THE DISTANCE TRAVELED BY LIGHT IN ONE EARTH YEAR (365.25 DAYS) IN A VACUUM. = 9.46 TRILLION KM (9.46X1012 KM) ~ 10X10^12KM … (Or 1X1013KM) … OR 1 LIGHT YEAR
13
Q
The number of ———–defines the element
A
protons
14
Q
AN ATOMIC NUCLEUS CONTAINS TWO TYPES OF ATOMIC PARTICLES what are they
A
PROTONS WITH A POSITIVE (+) ELECTROMAGNETIC CHARGE; AND
NEUTRONS WITH NO ELECTROMAGNETIC CHARGe
15
Q
EACH DIFFERENT TYPE OF ELEMENT HAS A DIFFERENT NUMBER OF _________ IN ITS NUCLEUS
A
protons
16
Q
THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN THE ATOM OF AN ELEMENT IS CALLED
THE__________
A
atomic number
17
Q
PROTONS AND NEUTRONS HAVE EQUAL MASS (THE MASS OF ELECTRONS IS INSIGNIFICANT). THE SUM OF THESE IS CALLED THE___________
A
atomic mass
18
Q
atoms are very big or very small?
A
small
19
Q
define isotopes
A
ALL ISOTOPES OF A GIVEN ELEMENT HAVE THE SAME NUMBER
OF PROTONS (THUS CHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR) BUT DIFFERING
NUMBERS OF NEUTRONS IN EACH ATOM
20
Q
define MASS PARTITIONING.
A
ALTHOUGH THE DIFFERENT ISOTOPES OF AN ELEMENT BEHAVE THE SAME CHEMICALLY, THEY DO NOT BEHAVE EXACTLY THE SAME PHYSICALLY
21
Q
what could happen in the RESULT OF PARTITIONING
A
1) ICE IN GLACIERS … FROZEN H20
2) MARINE SHELLS (and FOSSILS) MADE OF SiO2 (Silicon dioxide) (Silica),
3) MARINE SHELLS (and FOSSILS) MADE OF CaCO3 (Calcium carbonate),
4) THESE RATIOS CAN ALSO BE USED TO HELP STUDY OTHER KINDS OF
GEOLOGICAL PROCESS INVOLVING TEMPERATURE, SUCH AS METAMORPHISM (THERMAL ALTERATION OF ROCKS).
22
Q
WE CAN DATE THE volanco ASH (_________ ); ANALYSE THE AIR BUBBLES TO GET THE ____________ (N, O, AND CO2); ANALYSE THE STABLE ISOTOPES OF OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN TO DETERMINE THE _________________ WHILE IT WAS SNOWING.
A
1.time of eruption
- composition of the atmosphere
- TEMPERATURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
23
Q
whats nuclear fission
A
THE NUCLEUS OF A
RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE AUTOMATICALLY RELEASES OR ABSORBS
PARTICLES SUCH THAT THE ISOTOPE CONVERTS TO A DIFFERENT
ISOTOPE, ALSO WITH THE RELEASE OF ENERGY.
24
Q
whats the original isotope called and whats the new resulting isotope called from the orginal
A
the original is called the parent
tHE RESULTING NEW ISOTOPE IS A RADIOGENIC DAUGHTER. *[THE DAUGHTER MAY BE EITHER RADIOACTIVE OR STABLE.] IF A RADIOGENIC DAUGHTER IS RADIOACTIVE THE PROCESS CONTINUES UNTIL FINALLY A STABLE RADIOGENIC DAUGHTER IS PRODUCED.
25
what is the term geologists use to "date" rocks
GEOCHRONOLOGY
26
what are ions
AN ION IS AN ATOM OR MOLECULE THAT HAS A NET ELECTROMAGNETIC CHARGE AS A RESULT OF EITHER LOOSING OR GAINING ONE OR MORE ELECTRONS, WITH NO CHANGES TO THE NUCLEUS.
27
whats CHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR (BONDING)
ATOMS COMBINE WITH OTHER ATOMS TO FORM SOLID, LIQUID, OR GASESOUS COMPOUNDS. IN SOME CASES, THEY BOND WITH LIKE ATOMS TO FORM SINGLE-ELEMENT MATERIALS (SUCH AS GOLD [Au], COPPER [Cu], IRON [Fe]). ANY SUCH COMBINATIONS OF ATOMS INVOLVE THE ELECTRONS IN THEIR OUTER SHELLS (ONLY), AND IN WAYS THAT DEPEND ON THE ATOMIC RADII OF THE COMBINING ATOMS.
28
whats THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
ARRANGES THE ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO ATOMIC NUMBER AND CHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR
29
whats the big view
WHAT WE AS ASTRONOMERS CAN SEE
30
whats nebula
giant cloud of dust and gas in space
31
what does the universe include
galxies
stars
intersteller dust(gas)
nubulae
dark matter
32
whats supernovae
a star that suddenly increases greatly in brightness because of a catastrophic explosion that ejects most of its mass.
33
HERE ARE SEVERAL TYPES OF NEBULAE, ONE OF WHICH IS THE RESULT OF ____________ (THE EXPLOSION OF GIANT STARS)
supernovae
34
THE AVERAGE GALAXY SEEMS TO CONTAIN ABOUT___________BILLION STARS
300
35
MANY GALAXIES HAVE MASSIVE__________AT THE CENTER.
BLACK holes
36
OUR SUN (SOL) IS ONE OF ABOUT 300 BILLION STARS IN A GALAXY CALLED THE___________, A MODEST SIZED________
milky way galaxy
barred spiral galaxy
37
OUR SUN HAS A SYSTEM OF ______, _______, and _______ WHICH ORBIT AROUND IT CALLED THE SOLAR SYSTEM
planets, asteroids, comets
38
what are EXOPLANETS
An exoplanet is any planet beyond our solar system.
39
whats is OBSERVABLE MATTER (MAINLY STARS) made up of
MOSTLY HYDROGEN (~75%), FOLLOWED BY HELIUM (23%), THEN LITHIUM (~2%). OTHER ELEMENTS COMBINED MAKE UP LESS THAN (1%)
40
what are stars
lARGE (MOSTLY) LUMINOUS BODIES THAT COMPRISE GALAXIES AND FORM THE FUNDAMENT UNITS OF THE OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE.
THEY NOT ONLY ACT AS THE CENTERS OF SOLAR SYSTEMS ... THEY ALSO ARE *THERMO-NUCLEAR FACTORIES THAT MANUFACTURE ELEMENTS*.
HOW THEY DO THIS DEPENDS ON THEIR SIZE (MASS). THEY HAVE LIFE SPANS ... THEIR BIRTHS AND DEATHS ARE ESSENTIAL PROCESSES TO THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE.
41
what are the two ways of considering size of stars
DIAMETER AND MASS
42
solar mass written
(1M)
43
how is SOLAR DIAMETER (AND VOLUME) of stars measured
HE DIAMETER OF SOL IS ~1.4 MILLION KM (1.4X106 KM) RANGE OF DIAMETERS (FOR COMPARISON SOL DIA.=* 1D)*
44
STARS CHANGE _________ DURING THEIR LIFE SPAN.
diameter
45
HOW STARS WORK (and DIE)
GRAVITY AND NUCLEAR FUSION
46
whats is NUCLEAR FUSION
STARS AS ELEMENT FACTORIES UNDER HIGH PRESSURE AND TEMPERTURE THE NUCLEI OF LIGHT ATOMS CAN BE FUSED TOGETHER TO FORM NEW HEAVIER ELEMENTS
- IN A HYDROGEN BOMB, FOR EXAMPLE, HYDROGEN NUCLEI ARE CAUSED TO FUSE TOGETHER, FORMING HELIUM NUCLEI. SOME MASS IS EXPLOSIVELY CONVERTED TO ENERGY IN THE PROCESS. ALSO, HEAT IS PRODUCED.
47
why do stars not blow apart
THEIR IMMENSE GRAVITY HOLDS BACK THE EXPLODING PARTICLES AND THE STAR REMAINS INTACT...FOR A TIME...AND THEN, EVENTUALLY THEY BLOW APART.
48
whats NUCLEO-SYNTHESIS
THE PRODUCTION OF ELEMENTS BY ATOMIC FUSION IN STARS, STARTING WITH HYDROGEN ATOMS FUSING TO FORM HELIUM
49
how are red giants created
ONCE THE ENERGY RELEASED BY FUSION IS HIGH ENOUGH IT WILL UPSET THE STAR'S STABILITY SUCH THAT THE HYGROGEN AND HELIUM SHELLS SURROUNDING THE CARBON CORE WILL BE PUSHED OUTWARDS, AND THE STAR WILL EXPAND INTO A RED GIANT, COOLING AS IT EXPANDS.
50
whats a HUGE FLASH-FUSION EXPLOSION.
FUSION OF HYDROGEN TO HELIUM SURROUNDING THE CARBON CORe
51
What's a planetary nebula?
a region of cosmic gas and dust formed from the cast-off outer layers of a dying star
52
whats a WHITE DWARF STAR
what stars like the Sun become after they have exhausted their nuclear fuel. Near the end of its nuclear burning stage, this type of star expels most of its outer material, creating a planetary nebula. Only the hot core of the star remains.
53
what are black dwarf stars
WHITE DWARFS ARE DEAD, NO FURTHER FUSION OCCURS. THEY EVENTUALLY COOL AND AFTER BILLIONS OF YEARS WILL EMIT NO LIGHT, BECOMING BLACK DWARF STARS.
54
FOR STARS ORIGINALLY OF 10M-30M THIS WILL BE A _____ star
neutron
55
FOR THOSE ORIGINALLY GREATER THAN '30M' THIS REMNANT WILL BE A SMALL __________
black hole
THEY ARE THE RESULT OF THE EXTREMELY HIGH COMPRESSIVE FORCES THAT WERE PRODUCED BY THE STARS FINAL COLLAPSE AND SUPERNOVAL EXPLOSION.
56
O A GEOLOGIST STUDYING THE EARTH (AND OTHER PLANETS AND MOONS) PERHAPS THE MOST IMPORTANT PARTS OF ALL THIS IS THAT_______________
stars are element factories
57
whats does the NEBULAE AND SUPER-NEBULAE THE STARS PRODUCE WHEN THEY EXPLODe
CONTAINS THE RAW MATERIAL FROM WHICH NEW SOLAR SYSTEMS ARE FORMED
58
IT IS WITHIN THESE _____________________ THAT NEW STARS AND THEIR PLANETS ARE BORN.
interstellar nebulae
59
IT IS WITHIN THESE _____________________ THAT NEW STARS AND THEIR PLANETS ARE BORN.
interstellar nebulae
60
what are the TWO MAIN OPERATING FORCES of the ORIGIN OF A STAR AND ITS SOLAR SYSTEM FROM A NEBULA
GRAVITY AND CENTRIFIGUAL FORCE
61
What are galaxies?
A collection of stars, dust, and gas bound together by gravity
62
OUR OWN MILKY WAY GALAXY IS IN THE ___________WHICH IS A SUBCLUSTER WITHIN THE VIRGO CLUSTER.
local group
63
What is the Milky Way galaxy?
OUR HOME GALAXY IS A BARRED SPIRAL ABOUT 100,000 LIGHT YEARS IN DIAMETER, AND ABOUT 1,000 ly THICK IN THE ARMS.
64
THE ENTIRE GALAXY IS ROTATING __________
clock wise
65
what is are solar system made from
PLANETS, MOONS, ASTEROIDS, AND COMETS ARE LEFT-OVER DEBRIS THAT 'MISSED' GETTING ACCRETED TO THEIR STAR WHEN IT FORMED.
66
what are the 3 zones our solar system consists of
PLANET ZONE 30 AU
KUIPER BELT DWARF PLANETS COMETS 55 AU
OORT CLOUD DWARF PLANETS COMETS
50,000 AU
67
What are the rocky planets?
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
68
what are the giant planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
69
what is the order of planets from the sun
Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, asteroid belt, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
70
What are the gas giants?
Jupiter and Saturn
71
What are the ice giants?
Uranus and Neptune
72
What are the terrestrial planets?
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
73
WHAT HAPPENED TO THE INNER PLANETS
suns radiation
74
THE POTENTIAL HABITABLE ZONE FOR A SOLAR SYSTEM IS WITHIN THE DISTANCE AT WHICH LIQUID WATER CAN EXIST is what
GOLDILOCKS ZONE
75
whats an example of a dwarf planet
Pluto
76
What is a dwarf planet?
A dwarf planet is any object orbiting the Sun that is large enough to be round but not one of the 8 planets.
77
what are (NEOs)
NEAR EARTH OBJECTS
objects coming near earth
78
what is the most recent asteroid that entered earth
THE CHELYABINSK ASTEROID (20 METRE DIAMETER AND OVER 10,000 TONNES).
79
THE MOST IMPORTANT IMPACT CRATER IS IN where and what is it called
MEXICO.
THE CHICXULUB CRATER
IN THE YUCATAN PENNINSULA IS ~150 KM WIDE AND WAS CREATED 66 MYA BY AN IMPACTOR ABOUT 10 KM DIAMETER.
80
Why did dinosaurs go extinct?
Giant asteroid hit earth causing big climate changes
producing acid rain
81
what is the nicest impact crater in sask
DEEP BAY IMPACT CRATER NEAR THE SOUTH END OF REINDEER LAKE IN THE NORTHERN PART OF THE PROVINCE.
82
what happens when comets and meteors come close to the sun
WHEN THESE OBJECTS ENTER THE PLANET ZONE, THEY ARE CLOSE ENOUGH TO THE SUN TO BE AFFECTED BY HEAT AND THE SOLAR WIND WHICH PRODUCE A GLOWING
*'COMA' *
AROUND THE OBJECT AND CREATES A *LONG TAIL*
STRUNG OUT OPPOSITE TO THE SUN.
83
whats COMET NUCLEI
THE NUCLEI OF COMETS SEEM TO BE ASTEROIDAL-LIKE OBJECTS, BUT MADE OF ROCK, DUST, AND ICES OF WATER (H2O) AND CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2).
THESE NUCLEI AND THE CORES OF SHOOTING STARS MUST BE THE PRIMORDIAL STUFF OF WHICH OUR ROCKY PLANETS WERE MADE.
84
What's absolute zero?
IF THERE IS NO HEAT THERE WILL BE NO VIBRATION AND IF THERE IS NO VIBRATION THERE WILL BE NO HEAT.
85
What's the Big Bang theory?
the universe has not always existed. It states that the early universe was hot and dense. As time passed the universe expanded, cooled, and became less dense. The Big Bang theory can explain why the universe looks the way it does.is the leading explanation about how the universe began. At its simplest, it says the universe as we know it started with a small singularity, then inflated over the next 13.8 billion years to the cosmos that we know today.
86
what are the 6 major layers
a) Magnetosphere
c) Atmosphere (100 km)
d) Hydrosphere (including ground water)
b) Crust
e) Mantle SOLID EARTH
f) Core
87
What's the magnetosphere
Huge region around Earth protecting Earth from Solar Wind (and Flares) and Cosmic Rays
88
whats PLANETARY DIFFERENTIATION (OR IRON EVENT OR "IRON CATASTROPHE"
IN A MOLTEN PLANET, THE DENSEST ELEMENTS WILL SINK AND THE LESS DENSE WILL FLOAT, SUBJECT TO FORMING CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS (MINERALS) THAT TRAPPED MANY DENSE ELEMENTS INTO A LOWER DENSITY MINERAL THAT FLOATS (IRON HAS DONE BOTH, THOUGH MOST HAS SUNK TO THE CENTER OF PLANETS).
89
ON EARTH, DIFFERENTIATION CONTROLS THE COMPOSITIONS OF THE ________,and____, AND PRESUMABLY A PRIMATIVE CRUST THAT WE NO LONGER SEE. THE PRESENT CRUST IS THE RESULT OF OVER 4 BILLION YEARS OF GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES.
core and mantle
90
what are the 2 types of layers
a. COMPOSITIONAL (types of rocks and minerals present); AND
b. MECHANICAL (physical characteristics: such as solid vs liquid; and strength of the material; such as rigidity vs elastic vs ductile.)
91
What are silicates?
ROCKS OR MINERALS CONTAINING SILICON (Si) BONDED WITH OXYGEN (O) IN A FORM CALLED SILICA (SiO2).
92
whats core iron (Fe)
NICKEL (Ni) IS ALSO PRESENT (ABOUT 6%)
93
TAKEN AS A WHOLE, THE ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION OF EARTH IS:
IRON (56Fe) ------------35%
OXYGEN (16O) ---------30%
SILICON (28Si) ---------15%
MAGNESIUM (24Mg)--13%
OTHERS-------------------07%
MAKES THE ACRONYM FOSMag
94
How did the crust form?
Earth cooled down so that a thin crust formed
RESULT OF OVER 4 BILLION YEARS OF GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES -- DYNAMIC EARTH.
95
TEMPERATURE VS PRESSURE!
HIGHER TEMPERATURES CAUSES GREATER ATOMIC VIBRATION WHICH LEADS TO THE EXPANSION OF BODIES OF MATTER AND ULTIMATELY TO THEIR MELTING (THE SOLID VERSION OF ALMOST ANY MATERIAL IS MORE DENSE THEN ITS LIQUID VERSION, THUS FOR MOST MATERIAL THE SOLID WOULD SINK IN ITS OWN LIQUID).
PRESSURE DOES THE OPPOSITE; IT COMPRESSES MATTER, MAKING IT MORE DIFFICULT TO EXPAND AND BECOME LIQUID.
96
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES-- SEISMIC WAVES
1.COMPRESSION WAVES -- P-WAVES
2. SHEAR WAVES --------- S-WAVES
3. SURFACE WAVES ------- L-WAVES
(LOVE WAVES & RALEIGH WAVES)
THEY ALL DEPEND ON A MATERIAL'S DENSITY AND ELASTICITY
97
what are the velocities of the 3 seismic waves
* P-WAVES ARE THE FASTEST, thus often are called PRIMARY WAVES;
* S- WAVES ARE NEXT, thus often are called SECONDARY WAVES;
* L-WAVES ARE SLOWEST, about half the speed of P-WAVES.
98
how each wave moves in different media
-P-WAVES CAN PROPOGATE THROUGH ANY MEDIA: AIR, LIQUID AND ROCK. THEY HAVE THE HIGHEST VELOCITY.
-- S-WAVES TRAVEL ONLY THROUGH SOLIDS, AND ARE SLOWER.
-- L-WAVES ARE RESTRICTED PRETTY MUCH TO THE SURFACE BETWEEN MEDIA, SUCH AS BETWEEN THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH AND THE ATMOSPHERE (WIND GENERATED WAVES ON WATER IS A NON-EARTHQUAKE EXAMPLE). THESE ARE THE SLOWEST.
99
what wave does the most damage during an earthquake
surface waves
100
whats CONTINENTAL CRUST (CC):
AVERAGE DENSITY= 2.7 g/cm3
ITS COMPOSITION CORRESPONDS TO THE COMMON ROCK 'GRANITE' SO IS OFTEN CALLED THE GRANITIC CRUST, BUT IT CONTAINS A WIDE VARITY OF DIFFERENT ROCK TYPES
101
whats OCEANIC CRUST (OC):
AVERAGE DENSITY = 3.0 g/cm3 ITS COMPOSITION IS 'BASALT' (A COMMON TYPE OF LAVA)
102
whats MOHO (SHORT FOR MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY
IS THE BOUNDARY BETWEEN THE CRUST ABOVE AND THE MANTLE BELOW.
103
What's isostasy?
IS THE STATE OF GRAVITATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN THE EARTH'S LITHOSPHERE AND ASTHENOSPHERE SUCH THAT THE LITHOSPHERE "FLOATS" AT AN ELEVATION THAT DEPENDS ON ITS THICKNESS AND DENSITY. THE THICKNESS OF THE LITHOSPHERE VARIES WITH MAJOR TOPOGRAPHY, VOLCANOES, AND LARGE GLACIERS
104
what are some examples of isostacy
icebergs
glacial advance and retreat
volcanoes
CONTINENTAL SCALE -- TOPOGRAPHY a. GENERAL CONCEPT-- BLOCKS OF EQUAL DENSITY FLOAT WITH DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS DEPENDING ON THEIR THICKNESSES
SUBSIDENCE OCCURS DOWN TO THE ASTHENOSPHERE
EROSION ON LAND HAS MUCH THE SAME EFFECT AS MELTING GLACIERS - REBOUND—BUT EROSION IS SLOWER
105
whats PRIMORDIAL EARTH
AS IT FINISHED growing 4.54 BILLION YEARS AGO.
106
whats PRIMATIVE EARTH
AS IT WAS AFTER THE IRON EVENT AND THE SUBSEQUENT COOLING OF THE MANTLE BY ABOUT 4.2 BILLION YEARS AGO, BUT PRIOR TO THE FORMATION OF EITHER OCEANIC OR CONTINENTAL CRUST (WHICH ARE STILL ONGOING).
107
WHERE DID EARTH'S WATER COME FROM?
COMETS? IMPACTING BETWEEN ABOUT 4.3-3.8 BILLION YEARS AGO??
108
whats earths magnet called
DIPOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD.
109
WHY DOES EARTH HAVE A MAGNETIC FIELD?
IT IS CAUSED MAINLY BY CONVECTION CURRENT FLOWAGE WITHIN THE LIQUID IRON CORE, AND SOMEWHAT WITH DIFFERENTIAL SPIN OF THE SOLID IRON CORE; TERMED A "SELF-EXCITING DYNAMO".
110
OVER THE LAST 83 MILLION YEARS EARTH'S MAGNETIC _______ HAS DONE A 'FLIP' WITHIN THE EARTH (SORT OF) 183 TIMES.
dipole
111
what does OUR MAGNETIC FIELD PROTECTS US FROM
THE SOLAR WIND AND OTHER GALACTIC EMISSIONS OF ATOMIC PARTICLES
112
whats the aurora
WEAK SPOTS IN THE SYSTEM, AROUND THE MAGNETIC POLES, RESULT IN THE SOLAR WIND IMPACTING ON THE ATMOSPHERE AND IONIZING ATMOSPHERIC GASES, WHICH RESULTS IN THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN LIGHTS
113
What's superposition?
(LATERAL CONTINUITY)
the oldest layer is at the base and that the layers are progressively younger with ascending order in the sequence
114
What's intrusion?
(INJECTIONS OF MOLTEN ROCK (MAGMA)) (CROSS-CUTTING RELATIONSHIP)
115
What's deformation?
(TILTING, FOLDING, FAULTING)
THESE STRUCTURES FORM IN RESPONSE TO THE STRESS GENERATED (WE RECOGNIZE THREE STATES OF DIFFERENTIAL STRESS: COMPRESSIVE; TENSILE; AND LATERAL SHEARING STRESS.
116
what are folds
FOLDS ARE BENDS IN ROCK BODIES, ESPECIALLY NOTED IN STRATIFIED ROCKS. THEY OCCUR IN A VARIETY OF SIZES AND SHAPES, AND HAVE COMPLEX GEOMETRY
117
whats a fault
IS A PLANAR BREAK ACROSS WHICH THE ROCK MASSES ON OPPOSITE SIDES SLIP (SUDDENLY) PAST EACH OTHER, GENERATING AN EARTHQUAKE. THERE ARE THREE MAIN TYPES OF FAULTS, WITH MUCH VARIATION WITHIN EACH TYPE.
118
What's unconformity?
(ROCK\EROSION\MORE STRATA)
FOUR TYPES: ALL REPRESENT PERIODS OF NON-DEPOSITION.
disconformity
AGULAR UNCONFORMITY NONCONFORMITY
PARACONFORMITY OR SEDIMENTARY
119
whats a DISCONFORMITY
STRATA ABOVE AND BELOW THE UNCONFORMITY ARE PARALLEL TO EACH OTHER
120
what the hiatus
THE DIFFERENCE IN AGE BETWEEN THE STRATA IMMEDIATELY ABOVE AND BELOW THE UNCONFORMITY IS CALLED "THE HIATUS".
121
whats angular UNCONFORMITY
THE OLDER STRATA WERE TILTED, FOLDED OR FAULTED PRIOR OR DURING EROSION, CAUSING A DIFFERENCE IN DIP ACROSS THE UNCONFORMITY.
122
Those with well-developed _____ in the older rocks represent periods of tectonic plate collision
folds
123
What's a nonconformity?
An erosional surface separates older metamorphic or igneous rocks from younger sedimentary rocks.
THE OLDER ROCKS ARE EITHER MASSIVE INTRUDED BODIES OR HIGHLY METAMORPHOSED STRATA.
124
What's a paraconformity?
REPRESENTS A TIME OF NON-DEPOSITION, WITHOUT EROSION. THE STRATA ARE PARALLEL ABOVE AND BELOW THE UNCONFORMITY (MUCH LIKE DISCONFORMITIES, BUT NO EROSION IS RECOGNIZABLE AT PARACONFORMITIES).
125
whats FOSSIL CORRELATION
(A FOSSIL IS ANY REMAINS, IMPRESSION OR TRACK LEFT BY A ONCE-LIVING ORGANISM)
126
EVERY LIVING SPECIES EXISTS FOR A RANGE OF TIME. ___________
fossil range
127
FOSSILS WITH A "SHORT" TIME RANGE, BUT WHICH ARE BROADLY DISTRIBUTED GEOGRAPHICALLY ARE ESPECIALLY USEFUL. what are they called
INDEX FOSSILS
128
whats CORRELATION
THE PRINCIPLE OF FOSSIL CORRELATION OF STRATA IS THAT:
a) A STRATUM CONTAINING FOSSILS IS THE SAME AGE AS THE FOSSILS
b) TWO OR MORE STRATA IN DIFFERENT PLACES THAT CONTAIN THE SAME FOSSIL SPECIES ARE THE SAME AGE.
129
whats MYA stand for
million years ago
130
whats Ma stand for
mega anumm(billion)
131
what are the eons in the GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
(present-past)
phanerozoic
proterozoic
archean
hadean
132
when geological eon, eras, and years was the first life on earth
eon=archean
era=precambrian
yr=3,500 million years ago
133
what are the earas in the GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
(present-past)
now-cenozoic
mesozoic
paleozoic
precambrian
134
what eon, era, and epoch are we in know
phanerozoic
cenozoic
holecene
135
what eon, era, and periods did dinos live in
eon=phanerozoic
era=mesozoic
periods=triassic, Jurassic, and cretaceous
136
when were mammals first life on earth (geo time)
eon, era, and years
eon=phanerozoic
era=cenozoic
yr=66 million
137
when were reptiles first life on earth (geo time)
eon, era, and years
eon=phanerozoic
era=mesozoic
yr=252 million
138
when were fishfirst life on earth (geo time)
eon, era, and years
eon=phanerozoic
era=PALEOZOIC
yr=541 million
139
what period are we in right know
quaternary
140
THE EVOLUTION OF EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE IS RELATED PRIMARILY TO BOTH_______ AND ________, BUT ALSO TO THE GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE, AND EVEN TO THE SOLAR WIND.
volcanism, biological life
141
_____OF THE 4 PHANEROZOIC COOL TIMES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH MASS EXTINCTIONS.
3
142
WHY DID EARTH MELT 4.55ish BYA, AND WHY DID IT LATER COOL? HOW DOES THIS AFFECT THE ATMOSPHERE?
MELTING WAS THE RESULT OF THREE HEAT SOURCES:
a) GRAVITATIONAL COMPACTION;
b) PLANITISMAL, COMETARY, AND ASTEROIDAL IMPACTS (ALL OF WHICH HAD TO BE MUCH MORE COMMON EARLY IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM'S HISTORY), AND MOST IMPORTANTLY,
c) HEAT FROM THE DECAY OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES.
143
WHAT HAPPENED TO EARTH'S ATMOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)? IT'S A GOOD THING IT DECREASED OR EARTH WOULD BE MORE LIKE VENUS. OR WOULD IT?
POINT #1.
ACCORDING TO ASTROPHYSICS, THE SUN IS ABOUT 30% BRIGHTER NOW THAN IT WAS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM, THUS THE HEAT IT PROVIDED TO EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE WAS SIGNIFICANTLY LESS THAN NOW AND EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE SHOULD HAVE HAD ICE-HOUSE TEMPERATURES FOR MUCH OF THE LAST 4 BILLION YEARS.
POINT #2.
ACCORDING TO GEOLOGY, EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE MUST HAVE BEEN BECOME MOSTLY CO2 NOT LONG AFTER THE IRON EVENT, AS A RESULT OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY, SIMILAR TO THE ATMOSPHERES OF OTHER ROCKY PLANETS (WHICH HAVE NOT CHANGED MUCH IN THEIR PROPORTIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC GASES FOR THE PAST 4 BILLION YEARS). SINCE CO2 IS A "GREENHOUSE GAS" IT WOULD HAVE CAUSED THE ATMOSPHERE TO BE VERY HOT, LIKE A VENUSIAN SUPER HOT-HOUSE.
7
POINT #3.
NEITHER OF THE CONCLUSIONS ABOVE ABOUT THE TEMPERATURE OF EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE IS CORRECT. WE NEED TO COMBINE THESE TWO SETS OF INFORMATION BECAUSE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE APPRENTLY HAS HAD ABOUT THE SAME TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS (+/- ABOUT 15OC) FOR AT LEAST THE LAST 2.5 BILLION YEARS. 400 2200 650 250 Ma 66 0
POINT #4.
AS THE CO2 AS GONE DOWN TO LESS THAN 1/5000th OF WHAT IT WAS IN THE ARCHEAN THE EARTH SHOULD HAVE COOLED BY SEVERAL HUNDRED DEGREES. BUT,AS THE LUMINOSITY OF THE SUN HAS GONE UP THE ATMOSPHERE SHOULD HAVE WARMED BY SEVERAL HUNDRED DEGRESS. IT SEEMS THE TWO PROCESSES HAVE BALANCED EACH OTHER OUT AND OUR ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE HAS REMAINED RATHER STABLE (BUT STILL VARIES ENOUGH TO RESULT IN HOT-HOUSE CONDITIONS ALTERNATING WITH ICE-HOUSE CONDITIONS ON A HUNDREDS-OF-MILLIONS OF YEARS TIME SCALE).
144
WHERE DID THE CO2 COME FROM, ON EARTH AS WELL AS VENUS AND MARS?
volcanoes AND THIS LEADS TO THE ORIGIN OF OUR ATMOSPHERE.
145
________ GASES WOULD BEGIN THE INITIAL FORMATION OF OUR ATMOSPHERE
volcanic
146
WHY DID THE GREAT OXYGEN EVENT OCCUR?
TO BEGIN WITH, SIMPLE PHOTOSYNTHETIC* BUT ANOXIC BACTERIA PRODUCED A SMALL AMOUNT OF OXYGEN WAST
LATER, CYANOBACTERIA, WHICH ARE ALSO PHOTOSYNTHETIC*, PRODUCED MORE OXYGEN (STAGES 1, 2, and 3). THEY WERE THE FIRST MAJOR PRODUCERS OF OXYGEN, AND THEY THRIVE IN AN OXYGENATED ENVIRONMENT.
147
whats STROMATOLITES (SEDIMENT TRAPPED BY MICROBES).
CYANOBACTERIA FORM AS STICKY FILLAMENTS WHICH CAN TRAP SEDIMENT PARTICLES AND UNDER THE RIGHT CONDITIONS CAN BUILD A ROCK STRUCTURE
148
________ WHICH CLAIMS THAT ROCK AT DEPTH MELTS TO FORM THE STUFF OF WHICH VOLCANOES ARE PRODUCED (WHAT WE NOW CALL MAGMA).
PLUTONISM
149
________, WHICH CLAIMED THAT EARTH (AS IS) SETTLED OUT OF A HUGE BALL OF WATER (NOW GONE).
NEPTUNISM
150
who is the father of modern geology
James Hutton
151
EARTH IS UNIQUE IN MANY WAYS like
ON THE SURFACE
* ABUNDANT LIFE INCLUDING COMPLEX FORMS
* ABUNDANT LIQUID WATER: OCEANS, RIVERS, GLACIERS
* ORGENIC (MOUNTAIN) BELTS
* VOLCANIC MOUNTAIN BELTS
INSIDE EARTH
* LARGE LIQUID Fe/Ni OUTER CORE: MAGNETIC FIELD
* A COMPLEX CRUST RESULTING FROM NUMEROUS GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES OVER MORE THAN 4GA, ESPECIALLY ...
* PLATE TECTONICS ... flowage of Earth's mantle
152
__________ HAVE VOLCANOES, EARTHQUAKES, AND OCEANIC TRENCHES, AS A RESULT OF SUBDUCTION. ___________ DO NOT. **
ACTIVE MARGINS
PASSIVE MARGINS
153
MOSTLY UNDERWATER VOLCANIC MOUNTAIN CHAIN WE CALL THE __________ AND RISE SYSTEM
MID-OCEANIC RIDGE
154
What are abyssal plains?
THE ABYSSAL PLAINS ARE LARGE, MAINLY FEATURELESS, FLAT PORTIONS OF THE SEA BESIDE THE MID-OCEANIC RIDGES
155
THERE ARE A VARIETY OF VOLCANIC _______ (<1 KM HIGH) AND __________
ABYSSAL HILLS
VOLCANIC SEAMOUNTS
156
What's a guyot?
VOLCANOES SUBSIDE FOR A COUPLE OF REASONS, ONE OF WHICH IS ISOSTASY, AND IF AN ISLAND SUBSIDES SO MUCH THAT ITS FLAT TOP IS BELOW SEA LEVEL, IT WILL BE CALLED A GUYOT.
157
THREE TRANSITIONAL VARIETIES of coral reefs ARE PRODUCED
FRINGING REEFS; BARRIER REEFS; AND ATOLLS. A fourth type of coral reef, PATCH REEFS, grow up from shallow sea floor, rather than off the flanks of a volcano.
158
what does tectonic mean
REFERS TO THE STRUCTURE OF EARTH'S CRUST AND THE LARGE-SCALE PROCESSES BY WHICH IT EVOLVES (THE WAY THE CRUST HAS BEEN BUILT). TECTONICS REFERS TO THE PROCESSES THAT CONTROL AND CREATE THE STRUCTUAL PROPERITES OF EARTH'S CRUST.
159
What are plate tectonics?
REFERS TO THE MOVEMENT OF THE LITHOSPHERIC PLATES AND THE STRUCTURES THAT RESULT FROM THAT MOVEMENT.
160
what are TECTONIC MOUNTAINS
ARE MOUNTAIN BELTS BUILT AS A RESULT OF THE COLLISION OF TECTONIC PLATES, RESULTING IN STRUCTURES SUCH AS FOLDS AND REVERSE (THRUST) FAULTS THAT FORM BECAUSE OF THE COLLISIONAL COMPRESSION.
161
TECTONIC MOUNTAIN BELTS are also called________
oregens
162
THE ________SHIELD IS THE BEST STUDIED PRECAMBRIAN SHIELD,
CANADIAN
163
what are causes of mountains
A. VOLCANIC, BOTH CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC
B. INTRUSION OF MAGMA (SOMETIME SALT), BOTH CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC
C. BLOCK FAULTING, BOTH CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC
D. TECTONIC FOLD AND THRUST FAULT MOUNTAINS (OROGENS) MAINLY CONTINENTAL
E. UPLIFT PLUS EROSION, WITH NO/LITTLE DEFORMATION MAINLY CONTINENTAL
164
MOST OF EARTH'S MOUNTAIN BELTS (AND ALL OROGENS) ARE THE RESULT OF THE PROCESSES OF ______ AND _______
FOLDING
THRUST FAULTING
165
THERE ARE THREE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES:
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES ....... "EXTENSIONAL" CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES ....... "COMPRESSIONAL" TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES ....... "SIDE SLIP"
166
what are the three major rocks
A. IGNEOUS ROCKS - DERIVED FROM MAGMA - EXTRUSIVE (VOLCANIC: lava, pyroclastic) - INTRUSIVE (May become exposed through uplift and erosion
B. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - CLASTIC (e.g. sandstone) - CHEMICAL (e.g. salt) - ORGANIC (e.g. coal) - become buried but may later become exposed due to uplift.
C. METAMORPHIC ROCKS (changed rocks) - Originally either Igneous, Sedimentary or Previously Metamorphosed - High Temperature and Pressure but Below Melting Conditions - Form at Depth in Earths Continental Crust - May Become Exposed Through Uplift and Erosion
167
What's the rock cycle?
1. From igneous rock to sediment to sedimentary rock...
2. From igneous rock to sediment to sedimentary rock to metamorphic rock
3. And back to sediments...
4. That get melted, and cool into igneous rocks
168
what does the study of rocks involve
MINERAL AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION;
- ROCK TEXTURE;
- AGE; AND
- LOCATION (GEOLOGICAL MAPPING).
169
PLATE TECTONICS AND ALL OF ITS RELATED PROCESSES (ESPECIALLY ________, OROGENESIS, ISOSTASY, AND _______) ARE INTIMATELY INTERLOCKED WITH THE ROCK CYCLE
MAGMATISM
erosion
170
what tells us the origin of a rock
texture
composition
171
what are the three major rock textures
a. CRYSTALLINE TEXTURE - INTERLOCKING GRAINS (CRYSTALS) FORMS IN IGNEOUS ROCKS; CHEMICAL LIMESTONE; SALT BEDS; AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS.(obsidian rock)
b.COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS;
HOW THEY WEATHER AND ERODE - NOTE THAT THE MINERALS TEND TO BE EITHER LIGHT IN COLOUR OR DARK. THE OBSIDIAN IS DARK BECAUSE OF ITS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (IT IS GLASS AND HAS NO MINERALS)
C. CLASTIC TEXTURE - BROKEN BUT ROUNDED ROCK FRAGMENTS THIS TEXTURE OCCURS IN SILICILASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, CLASTIC (OR REWORKED) LIMESTONE, AND IN VOLCANIC PYROCLASTIC ROCKS.
172
THE DARK COLOURED IGNEOUS MINERALS COLLECTIVELY ARE CALLED _____ MINERALS
THE LIGHT COLOURED IGNEOUS MINERALS COLLECTIVELY ARE CALLED ______ MINERALS
MAFIC
FELSIC
173
whats the most resident common mineral
mineral quartz(SiO2)
174
*THE MAIN POINT IS THAT __________ROCKS DO NOT PERFECTLY REFLECT THEIR SOURCE ROCKS.
*ANOTHER MAIN POINT IS THAT THE DISSOLVED SOLID CONTENT OF SURFACE WATER (RIVERS, LAKES, AND THE OCEAN) IS DUE TO THE _______ OF ROCKS.
SEDIMENTARY
WEATHERING
175
THE MOST COMMON SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCK____________
SANDSTONE
176
THE PROPORTION OF OPEN SPACE BETWEEN GRAINS (PORES) IS CALLED THE _______
POROSITY
177
__________ IS THE EASE WITH WHICH A ROCK CAN TRANSMIT WATER (OR ANY GAS OR FLUID)
PERMEABILITY
178
WHATS - LITHIFICATION
CEMENTS AND HARDENS THE ROck
179
__________ ARE HARD COMPACT BODIES OF MINERAL MATTER THAT FORMED BY GROUND WATER PRECIPITATION IN THE PORE SPACES OF CLASTIC SEDIMENT OR PYROCLASTIC MATERIAL
CONCRETIONS
180
_________ - ARE ALSO SMALL, HARD, COMPACT BODIES, BUT THEY FORM BY CHEMICAL REPLACEMENT OF THE ORIGINAL SEDIMENT WITH MATERIAL PRECIPITATED FROM GROUNDWATER OR ON THE SEAFLOOR
NODULES
181
THERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAVES, THE MOST COMMON OF WHICH ARE: ___________ (MAINLY IN LIMESTONE)
SOLUTIONAL CAVES
182
CAVE DECORATIONS ARE COLLECTIVELY CALLED "____________": THERE ARE FOUR MAIN TYPES AND AN NUMBER OF MINOR TYPES.
SPELEOTHEMS
183
WATER TABLE
LOW PERMEABILITY RETARDS FLOW=_______
"ZERO" PERMEABILITY NO FLOW (ALMOST)=_______
HIGH PERMEABILITY HIGH FLOW RATE=_________
AQUITARD
AQUICLUDE
AQUIFER
184
MINERALS ARE THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF ______, A PART OF THE STUFF OF INORGANIC MATTER.
ROCKS
185
MINERALS ARE MATERIALS THAT MEET FIVE REQUIREMENTS. THEY ARE:
1) NATURALLY OCCURING (ALTHOUGH WE MAKE SYNTHETIC MINERALS);
2) INORGANIC;
3) SOLIDS;
4) HAVE A DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (CAN VARY SLIGHTLY), AND;
5) AN ORDERD INTERNAL STRUCTURE
186
THE MOST COMMON DOZEN OR SO MINERALS ARE CALLED THE _______________MINERALS. THESE ARE MOSTLY SILICATES (CONTAIN SILICON AND OXYGEN AS MAJOR ELEMENTAL COMPONENTS).
ROCK-FORMING
187
WHAT ARE THE 4 IMPORTANT MINERAL FEATURES
A. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: MAY BE FIXED, AS IN QUARTZ (SiO2), OR RUBY (Al2O3), OR MAY VARY SOMEWHAT AS IN OLIVINE (THE MOST IMPORTANT MINERAL IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM)
B. CRYSTAL STRUCTURE: A CRYSTAL IS A SOLID MINERAL BODY WITH A SHAPE CONTROLLED BY THE ARRANGEMENT OF ITS COMPONENT ATOMS (CRYSTALLINITY
C. CLEAVAGE VS FRACTURE: THESE ARE TYPES OF BREAKAGE. CLEAVAGE IS A PREFERRED DIRECTION/PLANE OF BREAKAGE CONTROLLED BY THE GEOMETRIC ARRANGEMENT OF THE MINERAL'S COMPONENT ATOM
D. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: THERE ARE A CONSIDERABLE NUMBER OF DIFFERENT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES MINERALS HAVE, BUT WE WILL LOOK AT JUST TWO; BOTH ARE USEFUL FOR HELPING WITH MINERAL IDENTIFICATION:
a. OPTICAL PROPERTIES, SUCH AS COLOUR, AND
b. HARDNESS.
188
LIGHT ABSORBTION: MINERALS MAY BE _________ (LIGHT IS NOT ABSORBED AND PASSES THROUGH, AS WITH WINDOW GLASS), _________(SOME LIGHT IS ABSORBED, SO THAT ONE CANNOT SEE OBJECTS THROUGH THE MINERAL, BUT CAN SEE THAT SOME LIGHT IS GETTING THROUGH), OR _______ (SOME LIGHT REFLECTS, THE REST IS ABSORBED BY THE MINERAL).
TRANSPARENT
TRANSLUCENT
OPAQUE
189
HOW IS THE COLOUR OF A ROCK DETERMINED BY
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION;
THE PRESENCE OF TRACE ELEMENTS
CRYSTALLINITY (THE GEOMETRIC ARRANGEMENT OF COMPONENT ATOMS);
DEFECTS IN THE CRYSTALLINITY (SUCH AS MISSING ATOMS WITHIN THE MINERAL).
190
________ IS A COMPLEX AND DIFFICULT TO USE ASPECT OF THE WAY THAT LIGHT REFLECTS OFF A MINERA
LUSTRE
191
_____________ IS BY FAR THE MOST IMPORTANT FOR MINERALS AND THIS IS THE MAIN ONE WE WILL LOOK AT. A
IONIC BONDING
192
A __________ IS THE SMALLEST STRUCTURE THAT WILL HAVE THE PROPERTIES CHARACTERISTIC FOR A GIVEN MINERAL
UNIT CELL
193
HOWEVER, DIAMOND FORMS IN ____________, DODECOHEDRAL OR OTHER ISOMETRIC CRYSTAL FORMS.
OCTAHEDRAL
194
THE __________ GROUP FORMS THE MAIN ROCK-FORMING MINERALS AND IS THE ONLY GROUP WE WILL LOOK AT HERE. THE MOST COMMON OF THESE MINERALS, ALONG WITH IRON, ARE THE ___________
SILICATE
PLANET BUILDER
195
FISSURE ERUPTIONS OCCUR IN 3 MAIN GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS:
1. ON THE FLANKS OF VERY LARGE SHIELD VOLCANOES (SUCH AS KILAUEA -- WILL DISCUSS MORE LATTER;
2. AS THE CREATORS OF THE LARGE IGNEOUS PROVINCES; AND
3. ALONG THE MID-OCEANIC RIDGE SYSTEM
196
WHAT ARE THE 7 TYPES OF ERUPTIONS IN VOLCANOS
1.FISSURE ERUPTIONS
2. CONES - TEPHRA (ASH, BLOCKS, BOMBS)
3. STRATOVOLCANOES (COMPOSITE VOL.)
4. LAVA DOMES
5. SHIELD VOLCANOES
6. CALDERA
7. SUPERVOLCANOES
197
__________ FORM THE VOLCANIC ARCS OF THE RING OF FIRE AND ELSEWHERE AT PLATE COLLISIONS WHERE SUBDUCTION IS OCCURRING
STRATOVOLCANOES
198
THE __________ THAT MAKES UP MORE THAN HALF THE GAS ERUPTED FROM NEARLY ALL VOLCANOES COMES MAINLY FROM TWO SOURCES:
a) ___________ AT THE POINT OF MELTING (PRIMARY WATER) AND
b) _________; INCLUDING, LAKES, RIVERS, OCEANS, GLACIERS, AND NEAR-SURFACE GROUND WATER WITHIN THE VOLCANO ITSELF (SECONDARY WATER).
WATER
WATER OBTAINED
SURFACE WATER
199
A HIGH VEI(VOLCANIC EXPLOSIVITY INDEX) REQUIRES
a) A LARGE VOLUME OF________ WITH
b) LOTS OF _________ GAS (MAINLY WATER FROM THE PRIMARY SOURCE AT DEPTH), AND
c) _______ MAGMA.
MAGMA
DISSOVED
FELSIC
200
What's a pyroclastic flow?
A PYROCLASTIC FLOW (PF) IS A MASS OF TEPHRA (MAINLY ASH) AND GAS THAT RESULTS FROM EITHER a) A COLLAPSING PYROCLASTIC COLUMN, OR b) A COLLAPSING OR EXPLODING VOLCANIC DOME (SMALL SECONDARY VOLCANO WITHIN THE CRATER, OR ON THE FLANKS OF A STRATOVOLCANO).
201
WHATS COLUMNAR BASALT
composed of basaltic lava flows that cooled to form "columnar basalt."
202
___________ LOOKS LIKE A PILE OF PILLOWS
PILLOW LAVA LOOKS LIKE A PILE OF PILLOWS
203
_________ GET THROWN OUT WITH VIOLENT SPATTER. MOST FALL ON THE CONE, SOME INTO FLOWING LAVA, BUT A FEW LAND ELSEWHERE.
LAVA BOMBS
204
___________: HOTSPOT SUPERVOLCANO
YELLOWSTONE
205
WHAT ARE 6 SECONDARY EFFECTS FROM VOLCANOES
A. ACID RAIN -- VOLCANIC DEGASSING
B. PARTICLES IN ATMOSPHERE - FINE ASH AND FINE DROPLETS OF SUFURIC ACID CAUSE REFLECTION OF SUNLIGHT BACK TO SPACE CAUSING GLOBAL CLIMATIC COOLING
C. CO2 IN ATMOSPHERE
CO2 IS A GREENHOUSE GAS AND HELPS TRAP HEAT THAT IS REFLECTED OFF THE SOLID EARTH - CAUSES GLOBAL CLIMATIC WARMING
D. FRICTION BETWEEN VOLCANIC ASH AND AIR MOLECULES CAUSE IONIZATION OF THE AIR
E. LANDSLIDES -- DEBRIS FLOWS, MUDFLOWS (LAHARS), ROCK SLIDES.
F. TSUNAMI(S)
206
WHAT ARE THE INTRUSIVE ROCK BODIES
a) HYPABYSSAL INTRUSIONS
(FINE TO MEDIUM GRAINED) (SHALLOW DEPTH [<~5KM]), AND
b) PLUTONIC INTRUSIONS (MEDIUM TO COARSE GRAINED) (MOSTLY EMPLACED INTO THE LOWER PART OF CONTINENTAL CRUST [>~5 KM]).
207
THE UPPER PART OF THE PLUMBING SYSTEM FOR VOLCANOES IS AN OFTEN-COMPLEX COLLECTION OF
HYPABYSSAL INTRUSIONS
SUCH AS NECKS/PIPES, _______, SILLS, AND ________.
THESE, IN TURN, MAY BE FED FROM BELOW BY LARGER MAGMA CHAMBERS THAT BECOME ______ (STOCKS AND BATHOLITHS).
DIKES
LACCOLITHS
PLUTONS
208
___________ARE BY FAR THE MOST COMMON INTRUSIVE BODIES. THEY ARE TABULAR IN SHAPE AND OFTEN EMPLACED VERTICALLY, BUT MAY DIP AT ANY ANGLE. THE DEFINING FEATURE FOR THOSE THAT CUT LAYERED ROCKS IS THAT _________-ARE DISCORDANT
DIKES
209
_______- ARE SECOND MOST COMMON. THEY ALSO ARE TABULAR BUT ARE EMPLACED MORE OR LESS HORIZONTALLY INTO LAYERED ROCKS (SEDIMENTARY OR VOLCANIC)
_______ ARE CONCORDANT
SILLS
210
_________ ARE LESS COMMON). THEY ARE SORT OF SILL-LIKE, ALSO CONCORDANT, AND CAN FORM OFF THE END OF A SILL, OR AT THE TOP OF A DIKE. THEY ARE FLAT ON THE BOTTOM BUT ARCHED ON TOP
LACCOLITHS
211
_______ FEED VOLCANOES DIRECTLY, BUT DIKES ARE OFTEN ASSCOCIATED IN SOME WAY
PIPES
212
_________ BODIES ARE OFTEN IRREGULAR IN SHAPE. THEY ARE USUALLY DISCORDANT WITH LAYERING IN THE COUNTRY ROC
PLUTONIC BODIES
213
_______ ARE OFTEN A CONGLOMERATION OF MANY INDIVIDUAL PLUTONS (INDIVIDUAL INTRUSIONS),
BATHOLITHS
214
VERY LARGE _______- ARE GENERALLY HIGHLY ELONGATE, OFTEN SEVERAL HUNDRED KM IN LENGT
BATHOLITHS
215
AND EVERY OROGENIC BELT OF EVERY GEOLOGICAL AGE CONTAINS SUCH _________
SYN-OROGENIC
216
WHERE DO VOLCANOES EXIST BESIDES EARTH
*EARTH (BASALT-RHYOLITE) & *LUNA (BASALT)
*MERCURY; MARS; AND VENUS (BASALT)
*IO (A MOON OF JUPITER) (LIQUID SULFUR)
*TITAN (A MOON OF SATURN) (METHANE)
217
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAGMA AND IGNEOUS ROCKS
HERE ARE 4 TYPES BASED ON THE AMOUNT OF SILICON WHAT ARE THEY
a) FELSIC (FELDSPAR + SILICA) 65-75% SiO2 + 10-15% Al203 + 5-10% [K2O + Na2O] + <5% [FeO + MgO] + 1-3% CaO + <1% OTHERS
b) INTERMEDIATE
50-65% SiO2 + PROPORTIONS OF OTHER ELEMENTS BETWEEN THOSE OF FELSIC MAGMAS/ROCKS AND MAFIC MAGMAS/ROCKS. THE MAIN MINERALS ARE USUALLY PLAGIOCLASE AND PYROXENE.
c) MAFIC
(MAGNESIUM + Fe FOR IRON) (DARK COLOURED MINERALS) 45-50% SiO2 + 10-20% Al2O3 + 10-15% Ca + 5-15% FeO + 5-15% MgO + 1-10% [K2O + Na20]
d) ULTRAMAFIC: THESE ARE RELATIVELY RARE. 40-50% SiO2 + 18-35% Mg0 + 10-15% Fe0 + 4-10% CaO + 3-12% Al2O3 + <1% [Na2O+ K2O]
218
A MAGMA MADE OF FELSIC THIS WILL FREEZE TO FORM ______ IF IT IS EXTRUSIVE (APHANITITC TO FINE GRAINED) AND _____ IF IT FREEZES SEVERAL KM BELOW THE SURFACE
RHYOLITE
GRANITE
219
________ VOLCANOES FORM MOST OF THE PLATE CONVERGENT VOLCANIC ARCS (ERUPTIONS MAY BE EFFUSIVE OR EXPLOSIVE).
ANDESITE
220
THE SILICA CONTROL ON ________ HAS AN ENORMOUS AFFECT ON THE PROCESSES OF INTRUSION AND VOLCANISM
VISCOSITY
221
THE LARGEST LAND ANIMALS TO EVER LIVE WERE THE BIG DINOSAURS. THEY LIVED DURING ONE OF EARTH'S _______ PERIODS. THE LARGEST WERE HERBIVORES.
HOTHOUSE
222
THE EVOLUTIONARY "BIG BANG" TOOK PLACE IN THE EARLIEST _______; ANOTHER HOTHOUSE TIME.
PALEOZOIC
223
THE GREATEST TIME OF CORAL REEF BUILDING WAS IN THE MIDDLE ______ AND HOTHOUSE TIME
PALEOZOIC
224
THE LARGEST MAMMALS TO EVER LIVE WERE ________ WHICH EVOLVED IN THE EARLY CENOZOIC; THE EOCENE TEMPERATURE OPTIMUM
HERBIVORES
225
THE CANADIAN ARCTIC AND OTHER PLACES WITH COLD CLIMATES TODAY WERE HEAVILY _____ DURING THE EOCENE THERMAL OPTIMUM
FORESTED
226
NOT UNTIL THE HOLOCENE MAXIMUM (6-7KA)(THOUSAND YEARS) DID _______ BECOME ALMOST GLOBAL. THE MESSAGE IS; HUMANS DO WELL WHEN IT IS WARM, LESS SO WHEN IT IS COLD.
AGRICULTURE
227
HOW WE OBTAIN PRE-1850 INFORMATION
1.DISTRIBUTION OF LATITUDE SPECIFIC PLANT AND ANIMAL FOSSILS AT DIFFERENT GEOLOGICAL TIMES, e.g., CORAL REEFS, COAL BEDS, REPTILES.
2. DISTRIBUTION OF ANCIENT GLACIERS IN TIME AND LOCATION 3. HISTORICAL AND ARCHEOLOGICAL INFORMATION ---- GOOD FOR LAST FEW MILLENNIA
4. TEMPERATURE PROXIES SUCH AS:
-TREE-RING WIDTH VARIATION (NOT VERY GOOD BECAUSE TEMPERATURE IS NOT THE ONLY VARIABLE - RAINFALL)
- **OXYGEN ISOTOPE RATIOS (O18/O16) IN FOSSIL MATERIAL ESPECIALLY, BUT ALSO IN CLAY (LOOK BACK IN NOTES TO
THE UNIT (B1) ON THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER (MASS PARTIONING). HYDROGEN ISOTOPES CAN ALSO BE USED.
228
WHAT CONTROLS CLIMATE-TEMPERATURE?
A. POSSIBLY FLUCTUATIONS IN SOLAR OUTPUT
B. LARGE ASTEROID (OR COMET) IMPACTS.
C. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
D. PLATE TECTONICS
E. CARBON DIOXIDE
229
______ IS THE MAIN GREENHOUSE HEAT PRODUCER AT PRESENT, WITH CO2 SECOND AND CH4 THIRD.
H20
230
DUE TO HUMAN ACTIVITY THE AMOUNT OF ____IN THE ATMOSPHERE HAS GONE UP TO A LEVEL NOT REACHED AT ANY PRIOR TIME DURING AT LEAST THE LAST SEVERAL MILLION YEAR
CO2
GEOL
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