1
Q
Food miles
A
A measure of the distance food travels from its source to the consumer. This can be given either in units of actual distance or of energy consumed during transport.
2
Q
Globalisation
A
The growing interdependence of countries worldwide through the increasing volume and variety of cross-border transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows, and though the more rapid and widespread diffusion of technology
3
Q
What is global shift?
A
Under global shift, manufacturing industries at first and more recently services have relocated in significant numbers from developed countries to selected developing countries
4
Q
What are the Asian Tigers?
A
South Korea
Taiwan
Hong Kong
Singapore
5
Q
Would a country with higher tariffs be more or less globalised ?
A
It would be less globalised
6
Q
What is Foreign direct investment ?
A
Overseas investments in physical capital by transnational corporations
7
Q
Emerging markets
A
Developing countries that are experiencing the fastest rate of growth in the global economy
8
Q
What are the three big financial centres of the world ?
A
London
New York
Tokyo
9
Q
Impacts on LEDCs of the 2008 global financial crisis (statistics)
A
- In 2009, World Bank estimated 2 million kids have died as result
- March 09 report by UNESCO estimated 390million poorest Africans have suffered income decline of 20%
- IMF said world’s poorest 22 countries needed additional $25billion in 2009
10
Q
Mongolia: part of the global periphery // what are the root causes of it economic problems?
A
- From 1923 the country’s economy was heavily subsidised by the Soviet Union
- Mongolia had high literacy levels, basic health care + education + full employment
- The speed of Soviet Union’s collapse + loss of financial support lead to significant economic problems
11
Q
Mongolia: part of the global periphery // what percentage of people live in poverty?
A
35% Mongolians live in poverty
12
Q
Mongolia: part of the global periphery // In what ways is Mongolia a typical developing country ?
A
- Highly primary product dependent
- Collapse of mining revenues due to 2008 global recession has caused acute financial problems
- 1/3 population live as nomadic herders
- In recent years, drought + unusually cold winters have decimated livestock, destroying the livelihood of hundreds of thousands of households.
- Many have moved to the capital where they live in impoverished conditions
13
Q
Mongolia: part of the global periphery // impact of global financial crisis
A
- has meant a fall in demand for most commodities, resulting in significantly lower products
- from mid-2008 to Jan 2009, copper prices fell by 64%
- government revenue has declined with falling commodity prices
- this has resulted in the trade balance swinging from positive to negative
- considerable government cuts are being implemented, but will have a disproportionate impact on poorest sections of society
- domestic banking system has very limited capacity to finance government due to its small size
14
Q
Mongolia: part of the global periphery // why has the value of remittances from Mongolians working abroad fallen?
A
- The economies of foreign countries have also contracted
- This has reduced the flow of vital income for many families with inevitable impact on local economies.
- More + more Mongolians are returning home, but cannot find employment
15
Q
Mongolia: part of the global periphery // how have livestock herders been affected by falling prices of cashmere?
A
- The economic situation has seen demand for expensive cashmere products decline, leading to a 33% fall in cashmere prices in Mongolia in 2008.
- The fall in demand and prices means many herders have struggled to repay loans they have taken out.
- Some herders are now forced by banks to sell their livestock to repay the loans.
16
Q
Are LDCs very affected by interactions between the core and periphery ?
A
- The least developed countries (LDCs) are the most marginalised in the world and have been relatively unaffected by the interactions between global core and periphery.
- Where effects have been felt they are as likely to have been negative as positive.
17
Q
Diffusion definition
A
The spread of a phenomenon over time and space
18
Q
Intermodal transportation definition
A
Transporting freight by using 2 or more transportation modes. This is made possible by transportation terminals linking different modes of transport
19
Q
Friction of distance definition
A
As the distance from a place increases, the interactions with the place decrease, usually because the time and costs involved increase with distance
20
Q
Distance decay definition
A
The reduction in the amount of movement or spatial interaction between 2 places the greater the distance they are apart
21
Q
Time-space convergence definition
A
This process concerns the changing relationship between time and space, and notably the impacts of transportation improvements on such a relationship
22
Q
Time-space divergence definition
A
When the journey time between places increases due to congestion, lower speed limits or other limiting factors
23
Q
Supply chain definition
A
The movement of products from a manufacturer to a distributor to a retailer and any points in between
24
Q
Deregulation definition
A
The lifting of government controls over an industry which usually results in greater competition and lower prices for consumers
25
Energy pathways definition
Supply routes between energy producers + consumers // they may be pipelines, shipping routes or electricity cables
26
Chokepoints definition
A point at which traffic or other movement can easily become blocked
27
Name 2 examples of the friction of distance and distance decay
- The reduction in commuting with increasing distance from a city
- The decrease in support for a sports team as the distance from the stadium increases
28
Why does the friction of distance tend to be less in richer countries?
In general, the friction of distance is less in rich countries than in poor countries due to the usually poorer level of accessibility in the latter. It also tends to be less in urban areas than in rural areas
29
What is the effect of time-space convergence?
Time-space convergence means that the friction of distance is being reduced
30
What is time-space convergence a direct consequence of?
Time-space convergence is a direct consequence of transport innovation
31
What are some restrictions that societies place on time-space convergence? (Time-space divergence)
- speed limits on motorways
- air traffic control limitations
- high usage of infrastructure leads to congestion + longer travel times
32
What percentage of the world's population owns a mobile phone?
60%
33
What percentage of people in Africa had a mobile phone in 2008 compared to 2000? What is one of the main reasons for this increase?
In 2008, 28% of people in Africa had a mobile phone compared with just 2% in 2000
An important reasons is money transfer services which allow people without bank accounts to send money by text message
34
Why did world airline passenger traffic fall by 3.1% in 2009?
Due to the 2008 global financial crisis
35
Name and describe an airline hub
- Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport has been the world's busiest airport since 2000
- It serves 90 million passengers a year
- It has 151 domestic + 28 international gates
- Is the main airline hub of Delta Air Lines, Air Tran Airways and Atlantic Southeast Airlines
36
Why is the creation of hub airports important?
The creation of hub airports has been instrumental in extending the connectivity of air transport
37
What percentage of air travel globally is for tourism?
Today tourism is the major source of demand, accounting for 70% of air travel globally
38
What are manufacturers doing to reduce the environmental impact of air transport?
Manafacturers are producing:
- cleaner aircraft to help reduce emissions
- better navigation systems
- improved use of on-board energy
- optimisation systems for taxiing and descending
39
What percentage of UK air passenger traffic is at Heathrow?
Heathrow accounts for almost 30% of all UK air passenger traffic
40
What are arguments against the 3rd runway at Heathrow?
- The 260,000 extra flights a year anticipated from the third runway would make the airport the UK’s largest source of carbon emissions
- Dash hopes of meeting the UK’s climate change targets and solving local air pollution problems.
41
What are the targets of the new plan Heathrow 2.0?
Heathrow 2.0 sets a wide range of targets to tackle carbon emissions, illegal levels of local air pollution, and noise
- The airport will use 100% renewable electricity from April 2017
- Aim to get 35,000 more people a day using public transport rather than arriving in cars by 2030 and double that by 2040.
42
What is the economic value of building a 3rd runway at Heathrow?
- Heathrow is the biggest single site employer in the UK, with 72,000 working at the airport
- Large number of independent firms rely on Heathrow for their business
- The airport has been described as 'the UK's gateway to the global economy'
- Strong relationship between Heathrow + financial companies operating in the City of London
- If 3rd runway is not built, Heathrow may lose business to competing airports e.g. Paris + Amsterdam
43
What is the cheapest way of moving heavy and bulky goods?
Water transport
44
Why are many shipbuilders planning on scaling up to 16,000 and 22,000 TEU vessels?
could reduce average transport costs by up to 40%
45
What are 2 potential disadvantages of scaling up to 16,000 and 22,000 TEU vessels?
- larger ships are more vulnerable to a decline in world trade because they have much higher financial break-even points
- Rotterdam is only port in Europe that can accommodate a ship of such size
46
Internet penetration rate (definition)
The percentage of the population in a country or world region with access to the Internet
47
Digital divide (definition)
Refers to the gap between people with effective access to digital and information technology and those with very limited access, or none at all
48
Green data centres (definition)
Data centres that are much ore efficient at cooling computers compared with traditional data centres
49
What is the fastest-growing mode of communication ever?
Internet
It took just 4 years for the Internet to reach 50 million users
50
The Horn of Africa // why was the lack of fibre-optic cables such a problem?
- In 2009 the Horn of Africa was one of the last populated areas of the Earth without a proper connection to the internet
- Instead of fibre-optic cables, which allow cheap phone calls and fast internet, its 200million people relied on satellite links
- This made international phone calls + internet overpriced + v slow
51
The Horn of Africa // what happened in June 2009?
- In Kenyan port of Mombasa, Kenya's president plugged in the first of 3 fibre-optic submarine cables
- Cable cost $130million, mainly at Kenyan government's expense
- Brought faster connection to Kenya, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda etc..
52
The Horn of Africa // why have fibre-optic cables been so good for economy?
- East Africa has many young English-speakers only an hour or two ahead of Europe's time zones
- Has been able to compete with India and Sri Lanka for back-office work for Western companies (e.g. call centres)
53
How much of the material on the Internet is in English?
About 60% of the material on the Internet is in English
54
To what extent are computers and the Internet responsible for human-made carbon dioxide emissions?
Computers and the Internet could be responsible for as much as 2% of all human-made carbon dioxide emissions. At this level it would be on par with the aviation industry
55
By how much will emissions from computers rise by 2020?
The Climate Group, an international environmental coalition, estimates that total emissions from computers will rise by 280% by 2020
56
Name a technical advancement that is reducing the environmental impact of computers and the Internet
An increasing number of organisations are using GREEN DATA CENTRES which are much more efficient at cooling computers compared with traditional data centres. With green data centres the energy needed to send each megabyte of data across the net is about 30% less each year
57
In what ways have developments in ICT been vital to the expansion of civil society both within and between countries?
- ICT has allowed cheap, reliable + almost instantaneous communications around the world, permitting the sharing of information on an unprecedented scale
- Civil society organisations are steadily + successfully applying ICT to the promotion of improved human development
- Has meant the flow of information is more balanced and not just from a government to its citizens
58
Profit repatriation (definition)
Returning foreign-earned profits or financial assets back to the company's home country
59
Trade deficit (definition)
When the value of a country's exports is less than the value of its imports
60
Why have many countries felt the need to increase their hard currency reserves?
- These are important to cover foreign debts
or to use in case of emergencies
- Since 1990, LEDCs have increased their reserves from 3 months worth of imports to more than 8 months. They have done this because of increased uncertainties in a more globalised economy
61
Why do democratised developing countries appear to attract more foreign capital than undemocratic countries?
Because their democratic institutions can provide a secure and profitable environment for investment with protection of property rights and social spending on human capital
62
Give an example of profit repatriation
When the Volkswagen Group earns profits anywhere in the world, it takes a share back home to Germany, after converting it into euros
63
Why may a repatriation of profits be bad for host countries?
The repatriation of profits represents an outflow of a host country's limited foreign exchange resources and has a negative impact on the country's balance of payments.
The poorest developing countries are usually the worst affected because they will often offer very favourable tax exemptions + financial incentives to attract foreign investment
64
How does FDI need to be invested to bring benefits to the host country?
To bring benefits, FDI needs to be channelled into productive rather than speculative activities
65
The power of governments to influence the quality of investment has been steadily declining. Now a significant proportion of FDI is made up of companies:
- buying out state firms
- purchasing equity in local companies
- financing mergers or acquisitions
66
What do many say is the main economic problem for developing countries?
Many poor countries are currently paying back large amounts in debt repayments to banks, lending agencies + governments in MEDCs whilst at the same time struggling to provide basic services for their populations. An ever increasing proportion of new debt is used to service interest payments on old debts.
67
In what way can loans be positive?
Loans can help countries expand their economic activities and set up an upward spiral of development
68
Why do loans often lead to little tangible improvement in the quality of life for the majority of the population?
- Banks frequently lend irresponsibly to governments known to be corrupt
- Often such loans lead to little tangible improvement in the quality of life for the majority of the population, but instead saddle them with long-term debt
- If such countries had been companies they would have been declared bankrupt
69
New loans to LEDCs have often only been granted when they agree to very strict conditions under 'structural adjustment programmes' which have included:
- Agreeing to free trade measures which have opened up their markets to intense foreign competition
- Severe cuts in spending on public services such as education + health
- The privatisation of public companies
70
What is the aim of The Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative ?
- First established in 1996 by IMF and World Bank
- Aim is to provide comprehensive approach to debt reduction for heavily indebted poor countries
- To qualify for assistance, countries must pursue IMF + World Bank supported adjustment + reform programmes
- By early 2008, debt reduction packages had been approved for 33 countries, 27 of them in Africa
71
What proportion of global remittances originate in the US?
1/3 of global remittances originate in the USA
72
For the majority of Somalis, what has been the single most important source of income since the country's economy collapsed in the 1990s?
For the majority of Somalis, remittances sent back by relatives + friends working abroad has been the single most important source of income since the country's economy collapsed in the 1990s
73
Why do countries apply for funding from the IMF?
Countries usually apply for funding from the IMF when they are unable to obtain it from other sources
74
What is the aim of IMF money?
IMF money is designed to prevent the disruption to the international financial system that would occur if a country didn't meet its commitments to other nations
75
In 1960 a branch of the World Bank called that International Development Association (IDA) was formed. What does the IDA do?
The IDA lend only to nations with a very low per capita income. For such countries, loans are interest free and allow long repayment periods
76
Critics of the World Bank argue that the conditions attached to World Bank loans have:
- Crippled economic growth in recipient countries
- Hindered development
- Promoted dependency
- Increased poverty
- Rich nations use the World Bank to run other countries for the benefit of their merchant banks
77
Has the WTO been an overall success?
Yes, today average tariffs are only a tenth of what they were when GATT (WTO's processor) cam into force and world trade has been increasing at a much faster rate than GDP
78
What is the key problem with the WTO?
In principle every nation has an equal vote in the WTO. In practise, the rich world shuts the poor world out from key negotiations
79
Maquiladoras (definition)
Assembly plants in Mexico, especially along the border between USA + Mexico, to which foreign materials and parts are shipped, and from which the finished products are returned to the original market
80
Ethnographic (definition)
An ethnography is a type of case study that focuses upon the cultural patterns that develop within a group
81
Time-space distanciation (definition)
The stretching of social systems across space and time
82
Migrant culture (definition)
The attitudes and values of a particular society to the process of migration
83
What are the 3 main reasons for the labour migration from Mexico to USA
- Income gap has been powerful stimulus to movement // emigration tends to surge during periods of wage decline in Mexico
- Weak growth in Mexico's labour demand has resulted in high levels of unemployment + underemployment
- In virtually every aspect of quality of life, conditions are better in USA
84
How many people does Mexico send to USA each year?
Mexico sends up to 500,000 people (half of its net population increase) to the USA each year
85
How many immigrants in USA are from Mexico?
30% of legal immigrants in USA are from Mexico
50% of illegal immigrants in USA are from Mexico
86
Why did the American government allow the recruitment of Mexican workers as guest workers in the first half on the 20th Century?
- Guest worker programme began when US farms faced a shortage of labour during periods of war
- US farmers were strong supporters of Mexican labour as the increased supply of labour kept wages low + contributed to higher land prices
87
Why did the American government end the Mexican guest worker 'bracero' programme?
- Trade unions + many religious groups were against the programes
- Congress agreed that the inflow of Mexican workers was holding down the wages of US farm workers and ended the programme
88
What was the Immigration Reform Control Act passed by Congress in 1986?
- Imposed penalties on American employees who knowingly hired illegal workers
- Aim was to discourage Mexicans from illegal entry
- Also legalised 2.7million unauthorised foreigners, of which 85% were Mexican
89
By 2006, how many Mexican-born people were living in USA?
By 2006 there were an estimated 12 million Mexican-born people living in the USA // 11% of the population
90
In 2005 what was the median income for Mexicans in USA?
In 2005 the median income for Mexicans in USA was $21,000 (just over half that for US-borns) but still much more than the median income in Mexico
91
How does assimilation of Mexicans in USA work?
- Economic assimilation tends to occur first
- Whilst most migrants from Mexico would be in the low=-skills category, their children + grandchildren may gain higher qualifications
- Such economic mobility results in greater social contact with the mainstream population
- Eventually more people from migrant population get involved in politics + the migrant community gains better political representation
92
In the USA the Federation for American Immigration Reform argues that unskilled newcomers:
- undermine the employment opportunities of low-skilled US workers
- have negative environmental effects
- threaten established US cultural values
93
What was the impact of the 2008 global recession on employment in USA?
The recent global economic crisis saw unemployment rise to about 10%, the worst it had been for 25 years
94
Impacts of migration to USA on Mexico
- high value of remittances, which totalled $25 billion in 2008 // as a national source of income this is only exceeded by oil exports
- reduced unemployment pressure, as migrants tend to leave areas where unemployment is particularly high
- lower pressure on public services
- changes in population structure with emigration of young adults, esp. males
- loss of skilled + enterprising people
- migrants returning to Mexico with changed values and attitudes
95
San Agustin in Oaxaca, Mexico + Poughkeepsie in New York // how did the link between the 2 communities begin?
- Began with migration of a lone Oaxacan to Poughkeepsie in early 1980s
- Mexican population of Poughkeepsie, predominantly male, grew to over 100 in the next decade
- Most Oaxacans found employment as undocumented workers in hotels, restaurants, building workers...
- Remittances transformed village life in San Agustin
96
San Agustin in Oaxaca, Mexico + Poughkeepsie in New York // how did they main a high level of connectedness?
- Migrant community kept in daily contact with family + friends via telephone, fax, videotape: communications technology that was rapidly being introduced to San Agustin
- Rapid migration between 2 communities facilitated by jet travel + systems of wiring payments
- Classic example of time-space distanciation // the stretching of social systems across time + space
97
San Agustin in Oaxaca, Mexico + Poughkeepsie in New York // how did migrants display continued village membership?
Migrant remittances were used not only to support the basic needs of families, but also for home construction, the purchase of consumer goods and for financing fiestas
98
San Agustin in Oaxaca, Mexico + Poughkeepsie in New York // what was the main point of conflict between the migrants and the home community?
- The main point of conflict was over the traditional system of communal welfare that requires males to provide service + support to the village
- This was increasingly resented by some migrants who saw 'their money as their own'
- The traditionalists in San Agustin cited migration as the major cause of the decline of established values + attitudes
99
San Agustin in Oaxaca, Mexico + Poughkeepsie in New York // It was found that a migrant culture had become established in San Agustin for 4 main reasons:
Economic survival
Rite of passage for young male adults
The growing taste for consumer goods and modern styles of living
The enhanced status enjoyed by migrants in the home community
100
Supply chain management (definition)
The control of materials, information, + finances as they move in a process from supplier to manufacturer to wholesaler to retailer to consumer
101
Back office industry (definition)
Offices of a company handling high-volume communications by telephone, email or letter. Such low to medium level functions are relatively footloose and have been increasingly decentralised to locations where space, labour + other costs are relatively low
102
The components of businesses typically outsourced include:
```
Information technology
Human resources
Facilities
Real estate management
Accounting
Customer support + call centre functions
```
103
How does outsourcing allow companies to focus on their core business?
- Acquiring logistics expertise internally can be expensive + time consuming
- Using a logistics provider can greatly reduce capital expenditure
- e.g. no longer the need to purchase + maintain a transportation fleet, equipment + distribution centre
- High quality ICT gives manufacturers the ability to see their inventory as it moves through the supply chain
104
Which country's FDI inflows recorded the largest increase globally in 2008?
India's FDI inflows recorded the largest increase globally at 46% in 2008, even as global FDI flows decreased
105
Give an example of periphery to periphery outsourcing
Mauritius is a growing service exporter to Europe, particularly to France. Several Mauritius companies that provide BPO services to France have opened up their own offshore centres in nearby Madagascar. Here the services of French-speaking workers are acquired at much lower costs
106
Why do so many companies outsource to India?
- Labour costs are much lower
- Many developed countries have significant ICT skills shortages
- India has a large + able English-speaking workforce (50million English speakers in India)
- Early success of outsourcing to India has has a cumulative effect resulting in more + more outsourcing business coming into the country
107
What is the reason for the development of rural outsourcing?
- A company called Rural Shores has begun looking to rural India for an untapped pool of eager office workers
- With much lower rent + wages than other similar centres in cities, the company says it can do the same jobs as many outsourcing companies at half the price
- A majority of the workers are the children of famers + often the first generation to finish high school
108
How much is India's software industry worth every year?
Worth more than $1 billion each year
109
What has India's software industry grown based on?
It has grown based on low costs but high quality products
110
How fast has India's software industry grown?
It has grown at a rate of 46% (twice rate of USA)
111
How many people does India's software industry employ?
It employs over 150,000 people
112
Why has India's software industry advanced much further than China's?
- Low cost professionals
- High quality levels
- Time-zone advantage with both USA and Europe
- After USA, India has largest number of English-speaking scientific manpower
113
What is Bengaluru also known as?
The 'silicon plateau' of India. It is home to high technology firms e.g. Motorola
114
What are Bengaluru's pull factors?
- Skilled workforce
- City contains several research institutes + universities
- Offers low labour costs // A first class graduate can be recruited for as little as £2800 a year
115
Agro-industrialisation (definition)
The form of modern farming that refers to the industrialised production of livestock, poultry, fish and crops. It is typically large scale and capital intensive
116
Economies of scale (definition)
The reduction in unit cost as the scale of an operation increases
117
In the USA, what percentage of farms account for 72% of agricultural sales?
In the USA, only 8% of farms account for 72% of agricultural sales
118
In many parts of the world agro-industrialisation is having a devastating impact on the environment, causing:
- Deforestation
- Land degradation + desertification
- Salinisation + contamination of water supplies
- Air pollution
- Increasing concerns about the long-term health of farmworkers
- Landscape change
- Declines in biodiversity
119
How many greenhouse gases are produced by food production and consumption compared to emissions from road vehicles?
It has been estimated that food production and consumption accounts for up to twice as many greenhouse gas emissions as those from road vehicles.
120
What are the impacts of methane emissions due to meat and dairy production?
Methane remains in the atmosphere for up to 15 years and traps heat 21 x more effectively than carbon dioxide
121
What is vertical food-chain integration?
- This is where a single bull, whose genes perform well across a range of criteria, is selected to suit a particular product line, such as a supermarket’s brand of beef.
- The supermarket then employs farmers to rear that bull’s off spring in isolation in such a way that they
consistently produce meat with reliable marbling and taste, so that what the customer buys off the shelf in, say, Edinburgh in 2009 will be more or less identical in every respect (including genetically) to beef another customer might buy in Essex in 2015.
122
Why have mineral and vitamin deficiencies remained commonplace, even in countries where average food intake has risen?
- In countries where average food intake had riser, diseases associated w mineral + vitamin deficiencies remained commonplace and in some cases, had actually risen
- High-yielding varieties introduced during Green Revolution are usually low in vitamins + minerals
- Because new crops have displaced local fruits + veg, diets of many people in LEDCs are now extremely low in zinc, iron, vit A etc...
123
Why doesn't organic farming always mean lower emissions?
e.g. battery-farmed poultry are reared in such cramped conditions that more of their food energy is likely to be converted into protein in comparison with free range poultry
124
How much food is thrown away each year in the UK?
20 million tonnes is thrown away each year in the UK
125
Example of government policy promoting more sustainable agriculture
Cuba has switched to organic farming more quickly and on a larger scale than any other country as a result of a radical change in government policy. After a period of food shortages, Cuba because largely self-sufficient in food by the late 1990s
126
How has soybean production changed between 1950 and 2009?
Soybean production has risen from 17million tonnes in 1950 to 250million tonnes in 2009
127
What are the 3 main purposes of soybean production?
- 10% is consumed directly as food (tofu, meat substitute...)
- 20% is used to extract oil for cooking
- 70% is used as meal for livestock + poultry
128
What was a key discovery that catalysed soybean production?
The discovery in the mid 20th century that combining 1 part soybean with 4 parts grain significantly increased the efficiency with which livestock + poultry converted grain into animal protein
129
How have Brazil's beef exports changed since the late 1990s?
Brazil's beef exports have tripled since the late 1990s. Brazil now has 200million cattle on 1/10 of the country's available agricultural land. Almost 1/3 of this land was once part of the Amazon rainforest
130
What proportion of all global soybean exports are destined for China? Why is demand rising?
About half of all global soybean exports are destined for China. Demand for soybeans in China has been fuelled by rising incomes as an increasing number of people move up the food chain, eating more meat, eggs, milk and farmed fish
131
What proportion of deforestation in the Amazon is the result of clearing for cattle ranches?
2/3 of deforestation in the Amazon is the result of clearing for cattle ranches
132
Why have soybeans had a particularly serious environmental impact?
Soybeans have had a particularly serious environmental impact because agricultural scientists have not had the same success in increasing yields for soybeans as they have for grain crops. This means that more + more land has been required for soybean production to keep up with demand
133
What proportion of fruit and vegetables eaten in the UK are imported?
In the UK, 95% of fruit and 50% of vegetables eaten are imported
134
5 advantages of importing food from across the world
- Wider variety of foods
- Annual availability
- Better nutrition
- Cash crops improve economy in LEDCs
- Keeping rural communities existing + reducing unemployment levels
135
5 disadvantages of importing food from across the world
- CO2 emissions lead to climate change
- Outcompetes locally grown foods
- Prices may rise due to global conflict / natural disasters
- Pesticide + fertiliser use impacts upon ecosystem
- Destruction of habitats + creation of monoculture for cash crops e.g. palm oil
136
Product life cycle (definition)
The pattern of sales in the life of a product usually divided into 4 stages; early, growth, maturity and decline
137
Is the movement of polluting industries from developed to developing countries purely coincidental?
- At first the movement of polluting industries from polluting industries from developed to developing countries was mainly coincidental w lower labour costs
- However, in last 40 years w increasingly strict environmental legislation in MEDCs, more + more companies have made 'global shift decision' to avoid high costs of complying w environmental legislation in MEDCs
138
Despite the intense use of energy and materials, why are levels of pollution relatively low in MEDCs?
- because of global shift
- but also because industry has spent increasing amounts on research + development to reduce pollution // the 'greening of industry
- also increasing concentration on service industries in developed economies
139
What is the correlation between pollution levels and GDP?
- In the early and middle stages of industrialisation there is a strong positive correlation between rising GDP + pollution
- However as the pop. of a country becomes more affluent + begins to look beyond income and as pollution becomes more + more of a problem, governments will act to contain + eventually reduce pollution
140
What does the Kuznets curve say about the relation between environmental degradation + a country's development?
- In the early stages of industrialisation the focus is on economic development w little concern for environment. Pollution levels increase rapidly
- After a certain standard of living is reached + pollution is at its highest, attitudes to pollution change + there is now a general desire to tackle problem
- With increasing environmental investment, pollution levels fall
141
What is the result of deindustrialisation on pollution levels in developed countries?
- The developed countries have experienced deindustrialisation as many of their major polluting industries have filtered down or relocated to NICs.
- This has resulted in improved environmental conditions in many developed countries in general, although pollution from transportation has often increased.
142
Pollution in China // background information (economic growth, environmental problems, geographical location)
- China's rapid economic growth has led to widespread environmental problems
- The Pearl river delta region is the focal point of a massive wave of foreign investment
- The Pearl river drains into the South China Sea
- The region's manufacturing industries employ more than 30million people
- The entire delta is heavily polluted
143
Pollution in China // Is acid rain a problem in the Pearl river delta?
In 2007, 8 out of every 10 rainfalls were classified as acid rain
The high concentration of factories + power stations is the source of this problem, as well as the growing number of cars
144
Pollution in China // what are 'cancer villages'?
- In the village of Xiditou south-east of Beijing the cancer rate is 30 times the national average.
- This has been blamed on water + air contaminated by chemical factories.
- In the rush for economic growth, local governments eagerly built factories, but they had very limited experience of environmental controls.
145
How many of the world's most polluted cities are in China?
A World Bank study of air quality found that 16 of the 20 most polluted cities in the world are in China.
146
How many Chinese people drink polluted water?
- The Chinese government admits that 300 million people drink polluted water. - This comes from polluted rivers and groundwater.
- Thirty thousand children die of diarrhoea or other water-borne illnesses each year.
147
In what way does the scale of pollution in China have a global impact?
The scale of pollution in China has a global impact. China is already the world’s second biggest producer of greenhouse gases, due largely to the burning of fossil fuels in industry and energy production.
148
What does the transboundary dumping of hazardous waste refer to?
Transboundary dumping of hazardous waste refers to the export, often illegal, of hazardous waste by developed and industrialised countries to developing nations
Increasingly the Sub-Saharan countries have become the focus of this activity, as environmental legislation has tightened in the developed world
149
In 1990, how much of the waste produced worldwide was shipped from the developed world to the developing world?
In 1990, 1/10 of the waste produced worldwide was shipped from the developed to developing world
150
Greenpeace has identified 4 reasons for the increasing export of hazardous waste to Sub-Saharan Africa // POVERTY
Guinea Bissau, one of the poorest countries in the world, was to be paid $600million for storing + disposing imported hazardous waste. At the time of the offer, the amount was twice the country's foreign debt
151
What is e-waste?
Discarded electronic appliances such as mobile phones, computers + televisions
152
How many tonnes of e-waste is being generated globally per year?
Currently, over 40million tonnes of e-waste is being generated globally per year
153
In 2008, Greenpeace highlighted Ghana as a major recipient of foreign e-waste // How did the process work?
- Containers filled with e-waste arrived from Germany, Korea, Switzerland, the Netherlands under the false label of 'second-hand goods'
- Exporting e-waste from Europe is illegal but exporting old electronics for 'reuse' is not
- The container's contents end ip in Ghana's scrapyards to be crushed + burned by unprotected workers
- The waste is laden with lead and mercury
- Most workers, many of them children, wear no protective clothing
- Some samples of material contained chemicals that affect brain development + the nervous system
154
Dumping of toxic waste on Côte d'Ivoire
- One of worst cases of chemical exposure in recent decades
- Crisis began in 2006 when a ship unloaded 500 tonnes of petrochemical waste into a number of trucks which then dumped it in at least 15 sites around Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire's biggest city
- Waste contained hydrogen sulphide, sodium hydroxide etc...
- People had nose bleeds, vomiting, headaches, skin + eye irritation, intestinal bleeding...
155
How many members does Greenpeace have worldwide?
Greenpeace has 2.8million members worldwide
156
What does Greenpeace define itself as?
An independent global campaigning organisation that acts to change attitudes + behaviour, to protect and conserve the environment + to promote peace
157
How does Greenpeace maintain its independence?
Doesn't accept donations from governments
158
How does Greenpeace aim to catalyse an energy revolution to address climate change?
- Greenpeace campaigns against fossil fuels + esp. coal
- It urges governments to invest in more renewable energy
- Scores electronic brands on chemical + electronic waste
- Urges electronic companies to eliminate hazardous substances and to take back + recycle their products responsibly
- The use of harmful chemicals in electronics prevents their safe recycling once the products are discarded
159
How does Greenpeace aim to protect the world's ancient forests + the animals, plants and people that depend on them?
- Forest destruction produces 1/5 global greenhouse gas emissions
- Recent successes achieved by Greenpeace include
a) tiber certification + a moratorium on soya crops grown in deforested areas in Brazilian Amazon
b) protection of Canadian Great Bear rainforest in 2009
160
How does Greenpeace aim to work for disarmament and peace?
- By tackling the causes of conflict + calling for the elimination of all nuclear weapons
- Over 2000 nuclear weapons tests have left global + regional contamination
- People living near test sites are stil suffering today from cancers, miscarriages etc...
161
How does Greenpeace aim to work for sustainable agriculture?
- By rejecting GMO, protecting biodiversity + encouraging socially responsible farming
- Say GMO should not be released into environment due to insufficient scientific understanding of impact on environment + human health
- Want methods that work with nature, not against it
162
Greenpeace Rainbow warrior // what happened ?
- In 1985 the Greenpeace ship 'Rainbow Warrior' entered waters surrounding site of French nuclear testing
- French secret service bombed the ship in a New Zealand harbour on orders from President, François Mitterrand
- A Dutch photographer was killed
- Attack brought international condemnation for France
163
Homogenisation of landscapes (definition)
The process whereby different landscapes in a country increasingly resemble those found in other countries because similar processes of change are at work
164
Central business district (definition)
The major commercial centre of an urban area, usually centrally located at the point of maximum accessibility
165
Gradient of homogenisation (definition)
The thesis that homogenisation is at its most intense at the core of an urban area + declines towards the periphery
166
Name a recognisable historic building that helps make a city distinct
Big Ben, London
167
Name a recognisable modern building that helps make a city distinct
The Petronas Towers, Kuala Lumpur
168
Name 6 factors that have catalysed the evolution of uniform urban landscapes
- Improvements in communications technology, so that people in cities around the world are aware of opportunities + trends in other cities
- Increase in international migration + spread of ideas + cultures
- Time-space convergence, which allows improved interactions between places in a decreasing amount of time
- The desire of TNCs e.g. McDonalds to reach new markets
- Improvements in standards of living + aspirations to be part of a global network of global centres
- Globalisation of economic activity, culture + political activity
169
Reasons why Seoul is a homogenised city:
- There are global firms e.g. McDonalds in Seoul, just as there are Korean firms like Samsung in other countries
- The CBD is characterised by skyscrapers + international firms
- There are high-rise apartments + edge-of-town developments and decentralisation e.g. Pangyo on the south side of Seoul
170
Reasons why Seoul is an independent trader:
- There has been a massive urban redevelopment centred on the restoration of the Cheong Gye Cheon River in downtown Seoul
- Also has historic, cultural + tourist-economic value
- Murals along river recount some of the most important events to occur in Seoul over last 600 years
- Stresses the individuality of Seoul and Korea
171
Culture (definition)
The total of the inherited ideas, beliefs, values and knowledge which constitute the shared basis of social action
172
Cultural traits (definition)
Individual components of a cultural complex which may be divided into 3 categories:
- sociological
- ideological
- technological
173
Cultural hearth (definition)
An area that is or has been a rich source of cultural traits
174
Cultural hybridity (definition)
The extent to which cultures are intermixed
175
Bilingual country (definition)
A country in which two languages are commonly spoken
176
Separatist movements (definition)
Political parties or other organisations which believe that their region should separate from its current country to form a new country
177
Secularism (definition)
A view that rejects religion and religious considerations
178
Cultural diffusion (definition)
The process of the spreading of cultural traits from one place to another
179
There are three main methods of cultural diffusion // DIRECT DIFFUSION
Direct diffusion occurs when 2 distinct cultures are very close together and over time direct contact leads to an intermingling of the cultures
180
There are three main methods of cultural diffusion // FORCED DIFFUSION
Forced diffusion takes place when one culture defeats another, and forces its beliefs and customs onto the conquered people
181
There are three main methods of cultural diffusion // INDIRECT DIFFUSION
Cultural ideas are spread through a middleman or even another culture e.g. popularity of Italian food throughout North America
182
Where are today's cultural hearths?
Today's modern cultural hearths are places such as the USA, London and Tokyo due to the prevalence of their cultural aspects now present throughout the world
183
Aspects of culture: LANGUAGE
- Essential part of national identity and culture
- Not always restricted by geographical borders
- Human interaction depends almost totally on language
184
In what economic sector is language of vital importance?
Language is of vital importance in service provision
185
Name a bilingual country where 2 languages are needed to communicate with the total population
Canada
186
For many African countries, what is the official language a remnant of?
For many African countries, the official language is a remnant of old colonial rule, with old colonial powers retaining links with former colonies
e.g. French companies often outsource to Mauritius, an old French colony as they speak French
187
People from a minority language may feel distinct from the majority population. What can feelings of difference lead to?
Feelings of difference can lead to political tensions and spawn separatist movements
e.g. In Northern Spain, over half a million people speak Basque. Some want to separate from Spain. A very small minority are members of the terrorist group ETA
188
A significant number of people speak English as 2nd language. Why is this important?
- Often important in gaining access to information and greater employment opportunities
- Also increases access to global consumer culture
189
Name 4 customs that are distinctive of Japan
BOWING
- an important form of respect
- duration + inclination is proportionate to status
NO TIPPING
- seen as a little insulting
THRESHOLDS
- people expected to take off shoes at entrance to all homes, and most businesses + hotels
CONFORMITY
- Japanese society is focused on group rather than the individual
190
Aspect of culture: BELIEFS
- Religious beliefs were a very strong aspect of culture in virtually all parts of the world in the past
- Secularism has gained a strong hold in many parts of the West
- Such societies can find other societies whose beliefs are very strong worrying and even threatening
191
In some Islamic countries religious leaders hold a great deal of power or may even control the country (a theocracy). Give an example of this:
Iran's government is a 'theocratic republic'. Iran's head of state (Supreme Leader) is an Islamic cleric appointed for life by an elected body called the Assembly of Experts
192
Advances in telecommunications allow cultural images, of people + places, to flow around the world as never before. Cultural images may be:
- political
- economic
- social
- environmental
- historic
193
Why is imagery important?
Imagery is important because it helps to portray a country in either positive or negative terms.
e.g. Germany still suffers from images of concentration camps of WW2. In contrast, images of modern Germany often show its high standing in technology e.g. car industry
194
How many migrant workers are there around the world?
There are now about 100million migrant workers around the world
195
Worker migration is no longer as dominated as it once was by male migration and has become increasingly...
feminised
196
What do migrant workers bring with them?
Migrant workers bring their own cultural traits from the countries they move from, but also pick up aspects of culture from their destination country.
197
How are the traits picked up by migrant workers transmitted back to their country of origin?
a) the return of migrant workers to their home country
| b) keeping in touch by phone, letter + ICT and sending goods back
198
How have Polish immigrants impacted upon the UK?
- Since Poland joined EU in 2004, many Polish workers have migrated to UK
- Shops providing goods + services to expanding Polish community opened up
- Some Catholic churches began offering a weekend mass conducted in Polish
199
Where do most tourists come from?
Most tourists come from developed or core nations
200
The traditional cultures of many communities in the developed world have suffered because of the development of tourism. Adverse impacts include:
- Loss of locally owned land as tourism companies buy up land in most scenic + accessible locations
- Traditional values may be abandoned by local people
- People may be displaced to make way for tourist developments
- Large companies + governments can abuse human rights of local people in quest to maximise profits
- Alcoholism + drug abuse increase as drink + drinks become more available to satisfy demands of tourists
- Gap in wealth between local people and tourists can result in despair among local people
- Tourism can increase levels of crime + prostitution e.g 'sex tourism' is a big issue in Bangkok
201
Some commodities spread cultural traits more directly than others. Which industries are the most direct in spreading cultural traits?
The cultural or creative industries are the most direct in spreading cultural traits. Such industries include film, music, fashion etc..
Trade in cultural products has expanded rapidly in recent decades and is a major aspect of globalisation
202
Consumer culture (definition)
The equation of personal happiness with consumptions and the purchase of material possessions
203
Mass media (definition)
A section of the media specifically designed to reach a large audience. The term was coined in the 1920s with the advent of nationwide radio networks, and mass-circulation newspapers + magazines
204
Cultural commodification (definition)
When the objects, ideas + traits of a culture become part of the capitalist system of exchange + are bought and sold
205
How many restaurants and employees does McDonalds have?
31,000 restaurants in 118 countries + 1.4million employees
206
How many customers does McDonalds serve each day?
58 million
207
McDonalds is an example of a franchise. Why has this type of business organisation become so popular in recent decades?
McDonald’s is an example of a brand franchise, a type of business organisation that has become extremely popular in recent decades because it can result in much more rapid expansion than following the traditional route where the core company owns everything.
The more restaurants there are, the more McDonald’s benefits from economies of scale.
Today, over 70% of McDonald’s restaurants worldwide are run on a franchise basis.
208
What proportion of Americans have worked in a McDonald's?
One in eight Americans has worked in a McDonald's at some point in their lives
209
What proportion of all cows reared in the USA are used to make McDonald's burgers?
A third of all cows reared in the USA are needed to produce the company's burgers
210
Between 1965 and 1991, what was annual revenue growth of McDonalds based on?
Between 1965 and 1991, average annual revenue growth of 24% was based on innovative marketing + the enforcing of quality and cleanliness.
Marketing was based on aspirations - if you could eat hamburgers, you could taste part of the American dream
211
In 1996, the peak year of expansion, how many restaurants did McDonald's open globally>
In 1996, the peak year of expansion, McDonald's opened 2000 restaurants globally
212
What problems is McDonalds facing?
- The US market is virtually saturated
| - Seems to have expanded too fast in countries where not enough people can afford a $1 hamburger
213
Where has the rate of expansion of McDonald's been particularly high? How has McDonald's achieved this?
- The rate of expansion has been particularly high in China where McDonald’s opened 136 new outlets in 2008, the most of any country.
- McDonald’s has established a new tradition in China by popularising American-style birthday parties.
- It has achieved this largely by its direct television marketing to children.
- What was at first the exception in Chinese middle-class communities is fast becoming the norm.
214
What are 5 reasons for McDonald's slowing expansion?
- Increasing competition // new, more health-conscious fast food restaurants are rapidly raising their market share
- Falling quality survey ratings
- Poor recent record of product innovation
- Increasing attraction of vegetarianism + scares over meat products (BSE...)
- Impact of books like Fast Food Nation
215
Business analysts say that unless McDonald’s can respond quickly to its perceived problems, its era of rapid expansion may well be over. However, the company is investing heavily to respond to recent challenges with measures which include:
- Improving the quality of its present product range
- Promoting higher-margin food e.g. grilled-chicken flatbread sandwich
- Getting in on the 'fast-casual' boom in USA by buying chains like Chipotle
216
Give an example of McDonald's adapting its menus to local tastes
McDonald's Sichuan spicy menu product known as the China Mac became extremely popular at the Beijing Olympic Games
217
Why has McDonald's been the target of environmental groups?
- Destruction of rainforest to provide grazing land for 'McDonald's cattle'
- Large amount of waste packaging that has to be disposed of
218
What is the name McDonald's has been given to the set of principles it has spread around the world?
McDonaldisation
219
What are the principles of McDonaldisation?
EFFICIENCY
- compresses the timespan + effort expended between a want + its satisfaction
CALCULABILITY
-encourages calculations of costs of money, time, effort as the key principles of value, displacing estimations of quality
PREDICTABILITY
- standardises products so consumers aren't encouraged to see alternatives
CONTROL OF HUMAN BEINGS BY USE OF MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY
- maximal de-skilling of workers
- control of consumers through fixed menu displays, 'drive-throughs', limited options
220
Diaspora (definition)
Any group that has been dispersed outside its original homeland. Diasporas can develop through voluntary or forced migrations
221
Ethnicity (definition)
The identification of individuals with particular ethnic groups
222
Racial assimilation (definition)
The gradual process of integration into the mainstream community. This process has three main strands which are broadly in chronological order:
- economic
- social
- political
223
Urban mosaic (definition)
The complex pattern of different residential areas within a city reflecting variations in socio-economic status which are mainly attributable to income and ethnicity
224
Integrationist communities (definition)
Communities where a variety of ethnic groups intermix spatially and socially
225
Cultural imperialism (definition)
The practise of promoting the culture or language of one nation in another. It is usually the case that the former is a large, powerful nation and the latter is a smaller, less affluent one
226
Name 8 ways through which diasporas conserve their cultural traits
- Wearing of traditional dress
- Use of ethnic language at home + in community
- Visits to original community // letter + electronic contact
- Places of worship
- Education: religious // ethnic schools
- Ethnic cuisine
- Continuing immigration from country of origin
227
How many different languages are spoken in London?
Over 200
228
How much of the immigration into Britain since the mid 1990s has been into London?
Two-thirds of immigration into Britain since the mid 1990s has been into London
229
How many people in London were born outside the UK ?
Almost 30% of people in London were born outside the UK compared with 2.9% in the North East
230
In what city is racial assimilation at its most advanced in the UK?
Within the UK the process of racial assimilation is much more advanced in London than anywhere else
231
What proportion of London's doctors are non-white?
A third of London's doctors are non-white
232
3 features of ethnic groups
- distinct groups that are smaller than the dominant group in their society
- groups whose members share cultural traditions, values + a language
- groups whose members recognise themselves as a separate group an are recognised as such by others in society
233
London's non-white population is the largest of any European city. What proportion of the population is non-white?
28.8%
234
What do ethnic villages show evidence of?
Ethnic villages show clear evidence of the groups residing within their areas in terms of shops, places of worship etc...
e.g. the German school in Richmond and nearby German bakery have become key reference points for the capital's German community
235
When did Indian restaurant begin to appear in London?
- The 1920s witnessed the arrival of Indian professionals + students in London, along with many Sikh males from Punjab
- Indian restaurants began to appear, the first one opening in Leicester Square
236
What was the result of the turmoil that surrounded Indian Independence?
- The turmoil that surrounded Indian Independence resulted in considerable migration to London.
- The newcomers included doctors, teachers, ex-Army officers and farmers.
- Some found employment in their specialist areas, but most had to settle for jobs in London where labour shortages existed
- Thus many settled in Southall where factories were short of labour
- There is therefore a strong correlation between initial ethnic communities + large industrial areas
237
Why are there now significant Asian communities in wards of relative affluence?
The strong emphasis on education in many Asian families has resulted in significant upward mobility for subsequent generations, with geographical dispersal into higher-income areas
238
8 ways through which the host society adopts minority traits
- Expansion of international tourism
- Intermarriage
- Religious conversion // expansion of Islam
- Fashionable ethnic images e.g. Irish pub
- Increasing employment + social contact
- Popularity of ethnic cuisine
- Impact of government equality legislation
- Increasing access to ethnic media
239
How do higher levels of understanding reduce the barriers to the adoption of minority traits?
Due to a greater appreciation of the positive elements of alternative cultures
240
The second international decade of the world’s indigenous peoples began on 1 January 2005. This initiative by the United Nations had five main objectives, including:
- Promoting inclusion of indigenous peoples in laws, policies, resources etc...
- Promoting full participation of indigenous peoples in decisions that affect their lifestyles, traditional lands + cultural integrity
- Respect for cultural + linguistic diversity of indigenous peoples
241
How may globalisation lead to an intermingling of cultures, creating new hybrids and networks?
Through acculturation - this occurs when one group assumes the traits of others, but also retains some of its own characteristics. The spatial outcome of this process is cultural hybridity or glocalisation
242
How may globalisation lead to national cultures that still remain strong?
Through autarkism - this is when a culture reasserts its traits in the face of a perceived or actual threat from another culture
243
Give an example of how our universalised hybrid culture is not entirely Western in nature
This is illustrated for example by the number of words in the English language such as ‘pyjamas’ and ‘shampoo’ that come from the Indian subcontinent as a consequence of British colonisation of that region. Modern globalisation has taken these words, along with the rest of the English language, around the world.
244
Xingu people in Brazil's Amazon Basin // where do they live?
- Xingu National Park established in 1961
- It was South America's first indigenous National Park
- Protected tribal territory administered by communities living in its boundaries
245
Xingu people in Brazil's Amazon Basin // who are they?
- Xingu people represent 15 tribes
- Share similar belief systems, rituals + ceremonies
- By mid 20th century less than 1000 due to foreign epidemic diseases
- Population now over 3000 due to protection status
- Half inhabitants are younger than 15years
- Reflects an earlier stage of demographic transition than Brazil as a whole
246
Xingu people in Brazil's Amazon Basin // what are their traditions + rituals?
- An area of sacred ground set aside to bury the dead
- Communal vegetable gardens grow cassava + other crops
- Daily bathing is part of traditional life
- Traditional wooden canoes used to navigate local small creeks
- Fish important part of diet
- Playing of sacred flutes important Xingu custom
247
Xingu people in Brazil's Amazon Basin // impacts of commercial agriculture
- The expansion of commercial agriculture into rainforest has had major impact on Xingu
- National Park is surrounded by soya farmland that's pushing further + further into rainforest
- Effluent from adjacent farming polluting Xingu river + tributaries
- New hydro-electric dams are presenting Xingu's ability to live a sustainable life
248
Xingu people in Brazil's Amazon Basin // diffusion of global culture
- Mainstream Brazilian + global culture has diffused into indigenous pop.
- It's now usual for a longhouse to have a TV
- Solar powers, powering radios + water pumps, are highly beneficial
- General consumer goods have caused more controversy
- Cash-bought goods have created friction + jealousy
- Creating more individualistic society
249
Xingu people in Brazil's Amazon Basin // Belo Monte dam
- Biggest threat: Belo Monte dam
- Currently under construction
- Destroy vast areas of pristine rainforest, disrupt sensitive ecosystems + force relocation of 12,000 people
- Dams prevent fish from reaching spawning areas
- Mean indigenous people lose their history
- Without their territory, their history loses meaning: they are intimately connected to their land
250
Nation-state (definition)
An independent state inhabited by all the people of one nation and one nation only
251
Sovereignty (definition)
The exclusive right to exercise, within a specific territory, the functions of a nation-state and be answerable to no higher authority
252
Religious fundamentalism (definition)
Movements favouring strict observance of religious teaching (Islam, Christianity etc...)
253
Trade bloc (definition)
A group of countries that share trade agreements between each other
254
Immobility of labour (definition)
The effect of barriers to the movement of workers between jobs + geographical regions
255
Wealth (definition)
The total amount of economically relevant private + public assets including physical, financial, human and 'social' capital
256
When was UKIP founded and what was its aim?
- For many British people has been the gradual transfer of powers from the UK government to the EU
- UKIP was founded in 1993 to oppose such a transfer of power
- It principal aim was withdrawal from the EU
257
Why do some critics believe that trading blocs are unfair?
Some critics believe that trading blocs are unfair, as they deny non-members access to certain markets. Thus, countries from the developing world have more limited access to the rich markets of Europe. This makes it harder for them to trade and develop.
258
What is the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)?
- The North American Free Trade Agreement between USA, Canada + Mexico was signed in 1994, creating one of the largest free-trade zones in the world
- The zone was the first to join MEDCs and LEDCs
- It was an agreement to phase out restrictions on the movement of goods, services + capital between the three countries by 2010
259
What is the aim of NAFTA?
- eliminate trade barriers
- promote economic competition
- increase investment opportunities
- improve cooperation between USA, Canada + Mexico
260
Negative impacts of NAFTA on Canada
- many small firms have closed, due to competition with lower-cost US firms
- many firms left Canada for lower-cost areas in the USA
- mergers + takeovers have led to increased unemployment
261
With respect to Mexico, US industries move to Mexico to take advantage of its ultra-cheap labour. This has had the effect of:
- Creating unemployment in the USA (Trump)
| - Reinforcing a low-wage mentality in Mexico (incomes in the maquiladora sector have risen by only 15% since 1994)
262
Impacts of NAFTA on Mexico
- Poverty rates have fallen and there has been a rise in real income
- However, many workers are children, wages are low + working conditions are unsafe
- Mexico has a poor record of enforcing environmental laws
- Mexico may become a dumping ground for hazardous material
263
TNCs are frequently criticised for exploiting labour across the globe. How much do workers in foreign firms in poor countries earn compared to the national average?
Although TNCs are frequently criticised for exploiting labour across the globe, workers in foreign firms in poor countries earn twice the national average.
264
Previously the WHO has accused the tobacco TNCs of sabotaging efforts to control tobacco consumption through pressure tactics against the agency and other international organisations. A WHO report accused the tobacco industry of:
- Using numerous third-party organisations e.g. trade union to try to influence the WHO
- Secretly funding 'independent' experts to conduct research + publish papers that would challenge WHO findings
- Setting up press conferences to draw attention away from anti-smoking events organised by the WHO
265
Nationalism (definition)
A political movement or belief that a nation has the right to an independent political development based on a shared history and a common destiny
266
Who is Evo Morales?
First elected in December 2005, Evo Morales, from the Aymara indigenous group, is first president to come from the country's indigenous majority.
267
What did Evo Morales promise to do on election?
On election, he promised to govern in favour of Bolivia's indigenous majority, who had suffered centuries of marginalisation and discrimination.
268
What was Evo Morale's first move as president?
His first move, a few months after taking office, was to begin the process of putting Bolivia's rich gas fields under state control.
By the middle of 2006, he had renationalised Bolivia's oil and gas industries.
269
What was the impact of Evo Morales renationalising Bolivia's oil and gas industries?
The increased tax revenue allowed Bolivia to vastly increase its public investment and helped boost the country's foreign reserves.
270
What did Evo Morales do with the gas money?
With the gas money, President Morales's administration invested heavily in public works projects and social programmes to fight poverty which reduced by 25% during his government. Extreme poverty dropped by 43%.
271
Critics of the way globalisation is operating highlight the following 8 things:
- Widening gap between rich and poor
- Decision-making power being concentrated in fewer hands
- Erosion + loss of local cultures
- Loss of sovereignty of nation-states
- Destruction of biological diversity
- Increase in enviro problems as economic activity increases
- Increase in regional tensions
272
Name an anti-globalisation organisation
People's Global Action
273
Those that have major concerns about globalisation come from a wide variety of backgrounds, including:
- Popular fears about the power of big business
- Trade unionists worried about jobs filtering down to lower wage economies
- Environmentalists say TNCs are disregarding the environment in the risk for profits and market share
- Small businesses afraid they will become the victims of economies of scale
- Poverty campaigners who say the West's gain has been at expense of developing countries
274
When did many anti-globalisation groups come together?
All these groups and others came together to demonstrate against the WTO in Seattle in December 1999 and at subsequent international conferences. Approximately 60,000 people took to the streets of Seattle and used peaceful protest and civil disobedience to disrupt the WTO negotiations.
275
Critics of the way globalisation is proceeding at present argue for a number of signifi cant changes to the global system including the following:
- Establishment of a global central bank
- A revamping of the IMF to make it more democratic
- Establishment of a global environmental organisation to monitor and reduce the impact of economic activity
- The control of capital for the public good
276
What is glocalisation?
The adaption of a global product for a local market place
277
What are clone towns?
The term means that the centres of main towns have become dominated by the same chain stores, making them all very similar
278
Why are clone towns damaging?
- Small independent businesses lost
- Choice reduced as chain stores omg stock limited profit lines
- Chain stores have too much power
- Many chains relocate to out of town shopping malls, increasing pollution damaged the rural-urban fringe
- Regional identity reduced // all supermarkets stock same products
279
Localisation
The act of operating locally in terms of employees, productions, supply of raw materials (moving away from globalisation)
280
TNCs globalise their products in order to increase market share and maximise profits. In addition to:
- Meet health + safety regulations
- Meet local laws
- Match availability of components, produce
- Meet local customs + tastes e.g. no pork in Muslim country
- Meet socio-economic status of marketplace
- Match local languages + ideas of acceptability
Geography IB
flashcards
Decks in class (8)
# Cards
-
Core Theme 1 - Patterns And Change85
-
Core Theme 2 - Disparities In Wealth And Development86
-
Option Theme - Hazards and Disasters86
-
Optional Theme - Freshwater79
-
Global Interactions280
-
Core Theme 3 - Patterns in Environmental Quality + Sustainability47
-
Core Theme 4 - Patterns in Resource Consumption56
-
Option Theme - Oceans and their Coastal Margins126
