1
Q
Lee’s principals of migration
A
Lee’s principals of migration uses push and pull factors and intervening obstacles to show the decision that migrants make
2
Q
Todaro Model
A
Todaro Model shows that income is the most important factor in a migration decision
3
Q
Stark’s ‘new economics of migration’
A
Stark’s ‘new economics of migration’ emphasises the idea of household migration over individuals
4
Q
Overall net increase in migration due to globalisation
A
Over the last 20 years there has been a net increase in migration
- In 2015, according to the UNFPA, 244 million people were living outside their country of origin
- Migration is inextricably linked with globalisation, and as places are increasingly interconnected it is unsurprising that that the magnitude, complexity and impact of global migration make it a priority issue for most nations
5
Q
Changing patterns of recent migration - large scale
A
- South Asia: 1990-95 it had mainly internal migration but 2005-10 many people emigrated to West Asia, North America and Europe (from South to West Asia, numbers increased from 356,000 to 4.5 million) and (from South Asia to America, numbers have risen to 1.5 million, triple earlier figures)
- Large number of migrants from Latin America to Europe, there wasn’t before (from 393,000 to over 1.5 million)
- High intra-regional migration in Africa
6
Q
Changing patterns of recent migration - smaller scale
A
Between 2005 and 2010:
- 18 million migrants from Mexico to USA
- 10 million migrants from India to UAE
- 6 million migrants from Bangladesh to India
7
Q
Key features of current migration patterns
A
- It’s not the poorest countries sending people to the richest countries, it’s countries in transition - still poor, but with some education and mobility - that are the highest migratory contributors
- The largest inter-regional migration is from Southeast Asia to the Middle East. This is largely driven by the huge, oil driven construction booms happening on the Arabian Peninsula
- The biggest flow between individual countries is the steady stream from Mexico to the US (which is the largest single migrant destination).
- There’s intra-regional flows of migrants among sub-Saharan African countries. This migration is much higher than the number leaving Africa, but the media pay more attention to the latter because of the immigration debates in Europe
8
Q
Recent changes in migration patterns
A
- The Arab Spring began in 2011 and caused a civil war in Syria against the Assad family which has led Syria since the 1960s.
- This has made Syria the largest source of refugees, contributing a massive 4.9 million in 2015.
- Although their final destination is often Europe, Syrian refugees have placed huge pressure on their neighbouring countries - Turkey hosted 2.5 million refugees in 2015 and Lebanon 1.1 million.
- Along with Syria, Afghanistan and Somalia sourced 54% of worldwide refugees.
- Somalia has an incredibly unstable government along with extreme poverty
- Afghanistan has been subjected to many wars and has numerous radical groups within it such as Al Qaeda.
9
Q
Migration across the Mediterranean - top 5 sea arrivals in 2016
A
- Syria - 28%
- Afghanistan - 14%
10
Q
Migration across the Mediterranean - numbers of sea arrivals
A
- 2014 - 216,054
- 2015 - 1,015,078
- 2016 - 361,709
11
Q
Migration across the Mediterranean - numbers dead (including missing)
A
- 2014 - 3,500
- 2015 - 3,771
- 2016 - 5,098
12
Q
Migration across the Mediterranean - composition
A
- 28% children
- 18% women
- 54% men
13
Q
Migration across the Mediterranean - country of arrival (2016)
A
- Greece - 173,447
- Italy - 181,436
- Spain - 6,826
The Dublin Regulation means that a refugee must stay in the first EU state they arrive in
14
Q
Reasons for increased intra-regional migration in the EU
A
- Free movement - the Schengen Agreement (started with 5 members in 1985) allows freedom of movement within most of the EU (26 countries)
- EU expansion - 2004 - Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Poland, etc. 2007 - Romania and Bulgaria. Much poorer states started migration process.
15
Q
Patterns of intra-regional migration in the EU
A
- More Western European countries like the UK and Spain have higher numbers of immigrants, whilst more easterly countries have lower numbers
- This is because there are greater opportunities for immigrants in places like the UK ($40,000 GDP per capita) compared to Estonia ($18,000 GDP per capita)
16
Q
Highest and lowest EU countries for immigration
A
- Highest and lowest countries in terms of immigrants from other EU states in 2013
- High: UK - 192,495, Spain - 85,020, Germany - 345,692.
- Low - Estonia - 385, Latvia - 1,517, Lithuania - 1,728.
17
Q
Remittances definition
A
Remittances - money sent back by migrants to their home country.
18
Q
HDI definition
A
HDI - the human development index is a composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development.
19
Q
How does development impact migration?
A
- At very low stages of development (GDP of under $1000 per capita), migration will be low as people do not have enough money to afford transport in order to migrate
- In the early stages of development, mortality rates fall but birth rates remain high.
- Rapid population growth follows and along with it comes rising unemployment.
- This unemployment means that people begin to migrate from the country on a greater scale.
- Rapid population growth follows and along with it comes rising unemployment.
- The levels of migration soar as development continues, not only because rising income finances migration, but also because previous migrants help finance the cost of family and friends and feed back information to potential migrants. Higher income earners are also more likely to obtain visas, increasing the ease of migration.
- However, soon after the country surpasses a GDP of around $10,000 per capita, migration will decrease and migrants will be more likely to return home as it is more worthwhile to live in their home country.
20
Q
Flows of people and money through migration
A
- Flows of people - movement of migrants
- Flows of money - remittances (more monetary value than foreign aid), mobile cash transfers
- These flows of money have been made easier, more efficient and more secure by the use of technology
21
Q
Flows of ideas and technology in migration
A
- Flows of ideas - skills and cultural values
- Flows of technology - using technology to map movements of people
- Used by humanitarian organisations including NGOs to assess crises so that response can be where needs are greatest
- Example is the use of smartphones and digital data collection to give access to the numbers of urban IDPs in Pakistan by IVAP, which uploads smartphone surveys to a database monitoring 400,000 urban IDPs
22
Q
Benefits of migration for host - stability
A
- Host country - migrant remittances (valued at $397 billion globally in 2014) give a source of foreign exchange which can help with economic stability.
23
Q
Benefits of migration for source - economic growth
A
- Returning migrants may have skills and knowledge which they can add to the economy (they may have trained as nurses, engineers, etc).
- Migrant remittances can also supplement household income to increase consumption and contribute to the multiplier effect
24
Q
Benefits of migration for host - economic growth
A
- 40% of the USA’s fortune 500 companies were founded by migrants or their children.
- Migrants are consumers so can stimulate the economy and the GDP and tax base of a country is increased by working migrants.
- Migrants can also fill skills gaps and shortages in the labour market at regional or national level
25
Benefits of migration for source - development
* Returning migrants, having acquired new values such as democracy and equality, can contribute to peacebuilding.
* UN migration and development policies grow and spread between partner countries, meaning positive impacts may occur for these countries from this ‘bottom-up’ approach to development.
* Migrants can also create networks which ease flow of skills, financial resources, values and ideas through their link to diaspora associations
26
Benefits of migration for host - development
* Where there is an ageing population, migrants can provide a more balanced population structure and growth rate
27
How flows of people can be uneven
* Flows of people - migrant flows are spatially uneven, as globally the South-North and South-South migrations are dominant
28
How flows of ideas and money can be uneven
* These are closely related to patterns of inequality in migration, and tend to flow in the opposite direction, back to the place of migrant origin
* For example, the talent-based immigration policies of countries such as Canada and the USA encourage flows of highly skilled migrants from LIDCs and EDCs, giving rise to consequent contra-flow of social and financial remittances
29
How flows of technology can be uneven
* In some countries access to technology is limited and reflects low levels of infrastructure for ICT
* For example, may low-income countries lack the skilled human resources and computer forensic tools to analyse data or download and use maps and satellite imagery
* In some countries, government or military control of information and limited broadband speed affect the work of civilian relief organisations, the inequalities restricting the effective management of conflict and injustices linked to migration
30
Problems caused by migration for source - inequality
* Better educated people migrate and cause a ‘brain drain’
* It is estimated that $60 billion of LEDC university investment has been lost this way.
* The loss of the youngest and fittest in society causes a downward economic spiral
* Remittances may increase inequality between those who can afford to send family abroad and those who cannot.
31
Problems caused by migration for host - inequality
* Areas with high levels of migration face pressure and declining standards of services e.g. healthcare and education.
* Migrants who are willing to work for low wages also push down salaries and increase poverty
32
Problems caused by migration - conflict
* Source country - international borders are often areas of conflict for border control authorities, traffickers and illegal migrants
* Host country - resentment can occur between ‘newcomers’ and locals, especially if language barriers or pressure on service occur
33
Problems caused by migration - injustices
* Asylum seekers can be held in detention centres without the right to work whilst their status is decided.
* They are also vulnerable to violation of human rights as a result of forced labour and exploitation of women and children
34
Impact of social/cultural globalisation on migration
* Places feel more familiar due to familiarity with language, media and services
* Spread of religions
* Tourism provides more familiarity
35
Impact of political globalisation on migration
* Some countries are politically linked, for example the common wealth, this explains the large flow of migrants between countries like the UK, Australia and Canada.
* Some countries may be linked together spatially, for example the EU and Schengen area (open borders)
36
Impact of economic globalisation on migration
* Transnational Corporations may have HQ’s and offices located all around the world.
* Migrants will move to jobs in other countries, movement of killed work within companies to run different branches.
* International division of labour
* The spatial shift of 2nd tier (manufacturing industries) from advanced, generally capitalist countries to developing countries, whilst the management and headquarters of the companies remain in the more knowledge based economies of developed companies.
* Outsourcing
* Outsourcing is the movement of elements of a company/production line to other countries, generally due to cheaper labour/less regulated workers rights in EC’s and LIDC’s.
37
Examples of the effect of Globalisation on migration
* Migration of highly skilled workers from China, India and Brazil (EC’s) to the US, attracted by high salaries and quality of life.
* Migration of 2nd tier workers from India, Bangladesh and Nepal to oil producing states such as the UAE and Saudi Arabia in search of higher wages and attracted by the ease at which they can send home remittances.
* Increased intra-regional migrational streams within central and south America driven by disparities in wages and availability of employment. Partially as a result of the Mercosan and Andean community trading bloc.
38
How the age of migrants has changed
* The main reason for international migration by the younger elements of the labour force is economic - greater employment opportunities, higher wages and the possibility of remittance
* The population structure of all migrant populations in Asia in 2013 was weighted towards younger people
* 25-29 year olds account for over 12% of migrants, compared to 55-59 year olds who accounted for less than 5%
* The flow of workers to the Middle East is a significant one, with numbers of foreign-born residents in the UAE increasing from 2.45 million in 2000 to 2.83 million in 2013
* This flow was dominated by Bangadeshi and Pakistani young men, with a high proportion working in construction
39
How the gender of migrants has changed
* Globally there has been an increase in the number of women and girl migrants in the 21st century - 44% of refugees are now women
* Greater proportion of men as a result of increased economic opportunity, men are more likely to be seeking work
* Growth in the number of female migrants can be accounted for by their greater independence, status, freedom and increasing importance as main income earners
* There is a trend of highly skilled women migrating in greater numbers - in the first decade of the 21st century the number of tertiary educated women in OECD countries increased by 80%
* Women are also more vulnerable to dangers during the journey.
* There is a high cost associated with migration, often only one member of the family can go, it is more likely to be the man.
* However, in the refugee crisis in Europe, the proportion of men has fallen from 74% to 46% between summer 2015 and January 2016 as families may now be following the men who left first to establish a new life
40
Causes of significant South-South corridors of migration
South-South flows now make up 36% of the world's migrant stock, 82.3 million migrants per year. Causes include:
* Countries south of the Brandt line have developed, leading to increased migrational flows within these countries.
* Political unrest, leading to huge numbers of refugees, for example, unlike the portrayal by the media, the largest receiver of migrants from the Syria conflict has been Turkey. Further example would be Honduras (highest murder rate in the world) and Mexico.
* Additionally, it is becoming harder to get into Northern countries as a result of increased fears over immigration and the election of less moderate government.
41
Examples of South-South Flows of migrants
* Flow from India to the UAE as a result of money generated by a booming oil industry
* 3 million in ‘Bonded Labour’
* Paid 120-160 dollars per month, promised 300
* Horrific conditions, meat or fish two times a month, 45 people for two toilets
* Flow from Myanmar to Thailand due to predominantly economic grounds, the minimum wage in Thailand is 10 times greater than in Myanmar
* Flow from Somalia to Kenya as a result of instability and violence (Doduals migrant camp, the biggest in the world)
* Flow from Palestine to Jordan as a result of religious conflict.
42
Refugee definition
* A refugee is someone who has moved outside the country of his nationality or usual domicile because of genuine fear of persecution or death
* According to the UNHCR, the number of refugees worldwide increased from 15.7 million in 2012 to 19.5 million in 2014
* Of all refugees, 87.2% live in the global south
43
Asylum seeker definition
* An asylum seeker is a person who seeks entry to another country by claiming to be a refugee
* Those judged not to be refugees nor requiring international protection can be sent back to their home countries
* Globally in 2014, 1.66 million asylum applications were submitted
44
Impact of the Syrian conflict on numbers of refugees
* The Syrian conflict has lead to a huge increase in persecution as the people of Syria have faced aggression on all sides from Assad, IS and more extreme militia groups
* 470,000 people killed
* 4.9 million fled from Syria
* Turkey now hosts the most refugees in the world, 2.9 million
* Lebanon was so overwhelmed by Syrian refugees that in January 2015 the government imposed the need for an entry visa rather than allowing unrestricted movement
45
Use of national migration policies
* National migration policies are designed to meet the economic, social and political needs of a country
* For example, some ACs such as the UK, Australia and Canada use a points-based system to satisfy labour shortages in particular sectors
* In the developing world, some countries actively encourage emigration, largely to assist in the development process through the financial benefits of migrant remittances and the skills and ideas brought back by returning migrants
46
China's national migration policies
* Main source of immigration into China from overseas chinese who since 1949 have been offered enticements to return, several million have returned with the largest influx between 1978-79.
* The hugely industrialised Chinese coastline has encouraged immigration into China
* However only a minimal proportion of the country's population is comprised of migrants. Additionally, suspicion following the 2008 global economic crisis has fuelled suspicion of foreigners.
* 2004 overhaul of the 1985 immigration law and passing of a new ‘Entry Administration Law’ in June 2012 has tightened immigration into China as a result of a growing fear of increases in unskilled migration into China, a country that already has more than enough workers.
* Use the Hukou system to keep tabs on migrants
* 3,200 dollar fine for working illegally
* Took a strict line on emigration, relaxed a bit in the 1980’s ‘Four modernizations program’, attempt to start an economic ‘open door policy’
* Remains difficult, the Chinese government fundamentally is unwilling to let its citizens leave the country permanently
47
Development of distinct corridors of bilateral flow
* Bilateral migration is simply the migrant flow between two countries
* The number of migrants, their composition and the direction of flow are important characteristics of bilateral migration
* Some bilateral corridors are very large and long-standing such as that between Mexico and the USA
* Others cannot match this in scale, but new and significant flows have been recorded in the last decade such as migration between Sudan and South Sudan (which includes a large number of refugees)
48
Explanation of bilateral flows
* The decision to migrate depends on many factors, real or perceived, and explanation of these strong bilateral migrant corridors includes economic, social and political influences
* Costs of travel which may be related to proximity and cost of sending remittances
* Employment opportunities and wage differentials
* Ease of access and communication between the countries
* Migration policy, diaspora communities and networks and former colonial influence (i.e. language)
* Effects of conflict and persecution
49
Global integration and interdependence
* Global integration and interdependence have proceeded rapidly
* Flows of trade, capital, technology, information, ideas and people across international boundaries have not only increased but have become more complex in their geographical pattern
* International migration is a very important part of these globalisation processes, contributing significantly to social and economic interdependence
* This has brought benefits and opportunities for many, but others have been excluded from the process or have experienced the effects of inequalities and injustice
50
How does migration affect development
* Migration can also impact development, as the movement of people out of a country is normally followed by remittances.
* Remittances are crucial for the development of many countries, examples of which are Haiti, where remittances make up 21.1% of its GDP, and Nepal, where they make up 28.8%
* Meanwhile more developed countries rely far less on remittances - they make up 0.1% of the UK’s GDP
Human geography
flashcards
Decks in class (4)
# Cards
