1
Q
What are ecosystem services?
A
Ecosystem services are benefits to humans from transfer + flow of resouces.
e.g. Populations (natural and managed): – Nutrient cycling – Decomposition – Pest and disease regulation – Soil health and structure – Pollination
2
Q
What are the three components of ecosystem services?
A
- Drivers of change (policy, climate, land use etc)
- Benefits (wellbeing, food + water, economy etc)
- Natural resources (air, soil, land, water, etc)
3
Q
What are the characteristics of a monoculture?
A
Monocultures are…
- Homozygous (genetically identical)
- Low diversity
- Treat all the same
- Low response for selection
- Out-crossed crops sold as F1 hybrids
note: low diversity monocultures led to Irish potato famine.
4
Q
What are the characteristics of diversified cropping?
A
- Mix of crops
- High diversity
challenges: - May need to be grown at different times
- May need different inputs
5
Q
What are the characteristics of commercial breeding?
A
- Takes many generations and high cost to produce pure lines with novel phenotypes.
- Modern techniques used tech for ‘speed breeding’
- Cost transferred to farmer who pays seed co. a royalty to use their seeds
- Genetic materials is protected by IP rights
6
Q
What is an example of applications of commercial breeding?
A
The Green Revolution was made possible with the use of commercial breeding techniques. Led to…
- moving from 1 => 2-3 croppings per year
- increased fertiliser, water, and pesticide use bc more plantings
- over-use of inputs
==> Solution: invest in farmer education.
7
Q
How much plant diversity is utilised in agriculture?
A
- Of the 30,000-300,000 edible plants, only 7000 have been used in ag. Of this 7000, only 20-30 provide 90% of calories. Over half of calories are from rice, wheat and maize.
8
Q
What are landraces?
A
Landraces are heterogenous populations; related, inbred individuals; often developed by farmers through mass selection prior to 1950s.
9
Q
What’s the significance of landraces and old varieties?
A
May be of interest for adaptive potential to low input, biotic/abiotic stress or novel quality.
10
Q
How much animal diversity is utilised in agriculture?
A
only 30-40 species (~0.25%) used intensively, 14 account for 90% of production
11
Q
Why conserve livestock/crop diversity?
A
- Cultural significance
- Adaptation to different environment
- Breeding value
- New uses (env. remediation, new food, medicinal)
12
Q
What is conserved?
A
- Varieties (landraces + cultivars)
- breeds
- related species
- potentially useful species
13
Q
How is genetic conservation achieved?
A
Genetic conservation is achieved through…
In-situ conservation (requires lots of land) (preservation of ecosystems, continued use on farm)
- Germplasm collections
- Community-based seedbanks
- Cryopreservation, tissue culture, DNA sequencing
14
Q
What is Diversifood?
A
Diversifood is an example of ag biodiversity conservation
- Focuses on underutilised + forgotten plants for low-input and organic agriculture to diversity existing food systems.
- Promotes community seed banks and participatory plant breeding.
- Whole supply chain
15
Q
How is intellectual property (IP) used in genetic resources?
A
IP is used to protect…
- Plant variety rights (PVRs) to protect breeder’s investments
- End point royalties
- Patents on genes and varieties.
16
Q
What is an example of an IP ethical issue in gene resources?
A
- “Biopirates”: rich countries taking traditional varieties from developing countries + cultures and claiming IP on them, forcing OGs to pay to use them/their name.
- IP + commericialisation of bush foods, ensuring traditional owners have input + control.
17
Q
What is heterosis?
A
Heterosis is the idea that hybrids are superior over parents
18
Q
What is the quickest breeding technique?
A
Mutation is the quickest breeding technique.
19
Q
What are some examples of biotech?
A
Biotech: use of biological discoveries for dev. of industrial process + production of organisms.
=> GMOs
=> PCR
=> Marker genes/proteins
20
Q
How to make a (transgenic) GMO?
A
Livestock – DNA microinjection into fertilised egg cells
Plants:
– Monocots: Microprojectile bombardment (Gene gun)
– Dicots: Agrobacterium tumefaciens
==> Crown gall can infect plants: insert plasma into bacterial chromosome + it puts foreign DNA into dicot so bacterium carries desired genes.
21
Q
What are the steps to creating a GMO using microprojectile bombardment?
A
- Cut out the gene
- Insert gene into a vector with a selectable
antibiotic resistance marker gene - Copy vector in bacteria
- Coat tungsten or gold particles with DNA
vectors - Load vector-coated particles onto Teflon bullet
- Load bullet into gene gun
- Shooting the gene gun releases the particles at a
high velocity penetrating the plant cells - The vector enters the cell. The genes are
incorporated into the plant genome - The cells are plated on a selective antibiotic
media. Only cells that have incorporated the
vector will grow. - These cells are transferred to medium containing
plant growth factors
22
Q
What is a marker gene?
A
A marker gene identifies the gene, used to determine if a nucleic acid sequence has been successfully inserted into an organism’s DNA.
A genetic marker is a DNA sequence with a known physical location on a chromosome. Genetic markers can help link an inherited disease with the responsible gene. DNA segments close to each other on a chromosome tend to be inherited together. Genetic markers are used to track the inheritance of a nearby gene that has not yet been identified, but whose approximate location is known. The genetic marker itself may be a part of a gene or may have no known function.
23
Q
What does a promotor do?
A
A promoter starts the transcription
24
Q
What does the termination sequence do?
A
The termination sequence marks the end of a gene
25
What are some examples of GM crops?
– Atrazine resistant canola
Eggplant or brinjal
• Insertion of Cry1Ac gene from Bacillus thuringiensis
• Confers resistance against fruit and shoot borers
• Licensed for use in Bangladesh since 2013
GM Papaya, resistant to Papaya Ringspot virus
• Transferred genes containing capsid proteins
• Grown in Hawaii since 1999, approved for
consumption in the US and Canada
Golden rice
• Vitamin A deficiency causes 1-2 million deaths, 500 000 cases
of blindness annually
• Rice transformed with psy (phytoene synthase) from daffodil,
and crtl gene (carotene desaturase) from Erwinia uredovora
• Leads to production of lycopene (precursor to Vitamin A) in the
endosperm, given the seed a yellow colour
26
What is the current world status of GM?
- 113 fold increase in GM crop plantings since 1996
- 70 GM crop countries in 2018, 10 in Latin America
• In 2018, 26 countries planted 191.7 million hectares (additional 1.9 million hectares from 2017)
– 21 developing countries – 54% (103.1 million ha)
– 5 developed countries – 46% (88.6 million ha)
• Top 5 countries (USA, Brazil, Argentina, Canada & India) 91% of GM crops in 2018
• 19 countries with >50 000 ha GM crops each
– Australia 924 000 ha (GM canola & cotton)
~ 75% of soy and cotton is GM
• 1996-2016 GM crops provided $186.1 billion in economic gains to 17 million farmers
- 37% of global biotech crop area is in the USA
- Brazil the developing country with most GM
27
How can GM be used in pest control?
– Inbuilt resistance to insects (Bt crops)
– Herbicide resistance: Glyphosate (=Round-up), glufosinate (=Basta,
Liberty)
– ‘Stacked’ pest/weed disease strategies
28
What are the canolas?
```
Non-GM canola:
• Triazine tolerant (TT) canola
– Herbicides Atrazine, Simazine
– Used to control broadleaf and grass weeds
– Modified photosynthesis, less growth and oil yield
• Imidazolinone tolerant (IT) canola
– Clearfield canola
– Group B Herbicide ‘OnDuty’
– No yield penalty
```
```
GM canola
• InVigor Canola (Bayer Crop Science)
– Tolerant to herbicide glufosinate ammonium (Liberty)
– hybrid
• Roundup Ready Canola (Monsanto)
– Tolerant to glyphosate
• Maintain enzyme functionality
• Enzyme to breakdown glyphosate
• OGTR recommended release in 2003
• In 2017 GM canola grown in NSW (68,163 ha), Vic (56,900ha), & WA
(366,466 ha) or 24% or the national crop
• Moratorium on use of GM canola in Tasmania
• No demonstrable price premium globally
```
29
What are the top 5 countries with GM?
Top 5 countries (USA, Brazil, Argentina, Canada & India) 91% of GM crops in 2018
30
Who regulates GM in Australia?
Food Standards Australia New Zealand is
responsible for approving the use of
genetically modified organisms in food.
• The Office of the Gene Technology Regulator is
responsible for approving GM crop trials and the
commercial release of GM crops
31
What is the status of GM in Australia?
• GM crops first grown commercially in 1996 (Bt
cotton)
• Blue carnations with extended vase life released in
1996
• Herbicide tolerant cotton and herbicide/Bt cotton
released in 2000
• Herbicide resistant canola released in 2003
• Also cotton, maize, potato, rice, rose, soybean, sugar
beat, wheat
• Experiments in Tasmania (canola, poppies)
- Moratoriums in TAS, ACT, NSW (SA lifted early 2020)
32
What are some of the possible benefits GM for sustainability?
Possible benefits
• increased crop yields
• improved nutritional value
• a reduction in the use of chemical herbicides and pesticides
• enhanced resistance to biotic stresses such as fungal and bacterial diseases
• enhanced tolerance of abiotic stresses such as drought, cold
temperatures, waterlogging and high salinity
• conservation of natural resources such as water and soil
• increased storage and shelf life
• improved biodiversity resulting from the conservation of rare and endangered plant species
33
Potential Risks of GM for sustainability?
• the development of pesticide resistance
• crops with herbicide resistance becoming problematic weeds (in
managed and natural ecosystems
• harm to non-target organisms
• gene flow from modified crops to related plants, bacteria, viruses and other organisms
• Health risks (allergens, antibiotic resistance)
• contamination of GM-free products and crops
• Inability to predict long term effects
• Damage to ‘clean and green’ image
• Inequity in availability of GM to farmers (rich v poor)
34
how is the Monarch Butterfly a case study?
```
Risks to people, diet, air?
• Bt corn – toxin in pollen, distributed onto milkweed + eaten by monarch butterflies.
• Milkweed in corn crops
• Monarch butterflies eat milkweed (plus
pollen shed from corn)
• Are larvae present at flowering?
• How much pollen is harmful?
• Are risks greater than with alternative
pest management?
• Now generally considered to have no
effect due to better milkweed control.
```
35
What are some GM social sustainability issues?
Introduction of GM crops may influence social aspects
of sustainability
• GM Technology: ‘playing God’ not ‘normal’
• Disagreements between farming neighbours if GM
crops are introduced
• Rights of farmers to decide v societal views
• Labelling ‘voluntary’ , ‘enforced’
36
What's an issue in traceability and labelling?
What constitutes GM?
• Detection of trace contamination (what level constitutes GM?)
• Detection when product contains no DNA (eg canola oil)
• Detection when only host DNA is involved in the GMO
37
What are the conventions for GM labelling?
Any food that contains an ingredient or processing
aid that contains novel DNA and/or novel protein or
has altered characteristics must be labelled as a
genetically modified food.
• No label if present as flavouring at a concentration no
more than 1g/kg.
• No label if ingredient or processing aid is
unintentionally present at a level of less than 1% per
ingredient.
38
What are some hard situations in GM labelling?
* Whole foods (e.g. soybeans, corn and tomatoes)
* Ingredients in processed foods (e.g. soybean flour in bread, corn in corn chips, and tomatoes in spaghetti sauce)
* Derived from GM plant but no DNA/protein present (eg cotton fibres, cottonseed oil, canola oil).
* Milk from cows treated with growth hormones produced from GM bacteria, or beef from cows fed GM corn
* new country of origin food labelling system mandatory in July 2018
39
What are genetic resources?
Genetic resources are genetic materials with actual or potential value.
e.g. disease resistance, drought tolerance, yield, social
40
What can cause trait value to change? (Different genes involved in different traits)
```
Climate change
Growing demand
Limited resources
Changing markets
New disease challenges
Regulatory environment
New knowledge
Others….
all genetic resources are potentially valuable.
```
41
How do genetic resources relate to biodiversity?
Preserving genetic resources = conserving biodiversity.
42
What are the advantages of biodiversity?
```
Adaptability and Resilience of populations
Climate change
Emerging disease
Feed availability
Demand
Hybrid Vigour
Local adaptations
Boosts ecosystem productivity
Social and cultural value
```
43
What are the three categories of livestock?
International Transboundary (multiple countries across regions (saanen goat, holstein cattle)
Regional Transboundary (More than one country within one region) (Abondance in France + UK)
Local Breeds (Found only in one country) (Indian Nari cattle)
44
Threats to genetic resources?
Indiscriminate cross breeding
Replacement by exotic breeds
Lack of conservation programs or policies
Poor performance or competitiveness
Decline of small-holder farming (alternative livelihoods)
Disease and epidemics
Loss of grazing land and other resources
Inbreeding
Consumer demand and changing markets
45
Where does most trade in genetic resources occur?
Most trade in genetic resources is between OECD countries, or OECD and non-OECD. non-OECD and non-OECD is uncommon.
46
What are the effects of inbreeding?
- Reduced fitness
- Deleterious recessive genes
- Inbreeding depression
47
What causes inbreeding?
Isolated populations
Genetic bottleneck
Line breeding
Single trait selection
48
Effects of inbreeding depression per 1% increase in inbreeding?
```
E.g. fresians
Every 1% increase in inbreeding see a big drop in milk production
Lose 790 gallons (US data)
13 months lifespan
$24 across life span
```
49
What might the future plan for lobal action for animal genetic resources look like?
```
Monitoring and Reporting
-More information = More power!
National coordination encouraged
National monitoring
National policy development
National Livestock Identification Schemes
Domestic-Animal-Diversity Information System
DAD-IS http://www.fao.org/dad-is/en/
Needs improvement
‘unknown’ risk status
Only 35% of countries monitor threats
- assess where action needs to be taken.
```
In vivo conservation
Breeding programmes
Conservation programmes
In vitro conservation
Reproductive and molecular biotechnologies
Legal and policy frameworks
50
Examples of genetically engineered animals?
AquAdvantage salmon: sterile, year-round growth
Enviro-pig
-Have an enzyme phytase which was put into DNA and is expressed in their salivary glands
Means that phytate and phosphorus which was previously indigestible is now bioavailable and doesn’t end up in rivers etc
```
BioSteel
- Developed in 2002
DNA from two different spiders Produced in goat milk
7-10 x stronger than steel
-20 to 330 temperature range
Stretch 20 times
No commercial production yet
Currently 30 goats at Utah state University
```
Pharmaceuticals
Transgenic sheep
Developed by CSIRO in Australia in the late 80’s
Additional copy of the gene for Growth Hormone
Increased size, growth rates, wool and carcass yield
High incidence of cardiac arrest and other problems
Cryptorchidism, diabetes, lameness (hooves)
Welfare concerns
Not commercially viable, abandoned in early 2000’s
```
Poll cattle
Polled Holsteins
De-horning is a welfare issue
Gene from Angus cattle
No loss of milking performance
Precision breeding v/s genetic engineering?
```
Sustainable resource management
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