Define what is a group?
2 or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives
Describe the differences between formal and informal groups
formal: defined by organisational structure, have designated work assignments establishing tasks eg. a project team working on a marketing campaign
informal: groups are neither formally structured nor organisationally determined eg. stud group formed by classmates, colleagues that each lunch together
Dsecribe social identity
a psychological connection we feel with others in a group
is reflexive: how we see ourselves and how others see us as part of a group
can have:
- no connection
- situational connection
- strong connection
Describe Tuckman’s model stages of group development
- forming: when people join the group, uncertainty, test waters, observe each others behaviours, complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a group, everyone is polite
- storming: intragroup conflict over who takes control & what the group will be doing, different ideas, complete when there is a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership and agreement on the group’s direction
- norming: close relationships develop, group becomes cohesive, everyone is on the same page, strong sense of group identity, complete when group structure is confirmed & there are clear expectations of each other
- performing: group is fully functional & works on group task, group structure is in place & accepted by group members, last stage for permanent groups
- adjourning: final stage for temporary groups, group prepares to disband, people feel sad if they like the group, group focuses attention on wrapping up activities instead of task performance
What is the importance of social identity? (+ve & -ve)
+ve:
ties to self esteem
helps reduce uncertainty about roles & behaviour
leads to better mental health when group identity is positive
-ve:
social identity threat
Describe work-related social identities (2)
- Relational identification: connection with specific people we interact with (eg. mentor, teammate)
- Collective identification: connection with the broader group’s values or characteristics (eg. marketing team, company culture)
What is in-group favouritism?
in-group is who you identify with, out-group is those you see as not part of your group
- we view our group more positively than others
- we tend to see out-group members as more similar to each other
What is social identity threat?
when individuals fear being judged negatively based on their group membership
people worry that they will be evaluated based on a devalued group (eg. social class, ethnicity, gender)
leads to reduced confidence, lower performance, emotional stress
What is social loafing?
People expend less effort when working in a group than alone
Group Properties: cohesiveness
degree to which members are attracted to the group and want to stay
influenced by:
- time spent together
- small group size
- shared experience / external threats (eg. if dont finish project, group will be fired)
With Diversity
1. Valuable when roles and norms support
inclusion.
2. Encourages innovation, not uniformity.
Group Properties: diversity
the degree to which members of the group are similar
effects:
1. Early stages: more conflict, lower cohesion
and satisfaction.
2. Long-term: potential for greater creativity,
openness, and problem-solving.
3. HR practices and leadership can reduce
conflict and support performance.
fault lines
Group Properties: Roles
set of expected behaviour patterns that are associated with occupying a given position in a group
- role perception: our view of how we’re supposed to act in a given situation, shaped by co-workers, culture, media, observation
- role expectation: how others believe you should act in a given situation
- role conflict: conflict experienced when multiple groups are incompatible. intra-role conflict and inter-role conflict (you struggle with diff roles in life)
- role assimilation: people adopt behaviours consistent with social roles. social identity & stereotypes shape how roles are enacted eg if the group is conservative you become more conservative
Group Properties: Norms
Accepted standards of behaviour within a group that are shared by the group’s members.
Group Properties: size
Large groups (12+): better for idea generation & diverse input, people may not do work cuz they think other people will do, diffusion of responsibility: indiv effort feels less visible, perceieved inequality: feel that others arent pulling their weight
Small groups (~7): better for action and productivity
Group Properties: status
A socially defined rank within a group or
society, which influences behaviour, identity,
and group dynamics
Sources of status
1. Power – Control over outcomes/resources
2. Contribution – Ability to help achieve goals
3. Personal characteristics – e.g., intelligence,
charisma, wealth
Describe the punctuated-equilibrium model
used for projects with urgent deadlines
First Meeting
* Sets the group’s direction and behaviour patterns.
* These patterns often remain fixed.
Phase 1: Inertia
* Slow progress, limited change even if new insights emerge, no need to rush
Midpoint Transition
* Occurs around halfway between start and deadline.
* Triggers major re-evaluation and change, realise deadline is approaching
Phase 2: Inertia
* Group follows new direction, steady execution.
Final Meeting
* Burst of activity to complete the task.
Positive norms & Negative norms
positive norms:
- can improve creativity, cooperation, CSR performance, Strong PC norms in diverse teams → more creativity
Positive outcomes depend on group traits (e.g.,
extraversion) and identity.
Negative Norms (Deviant Behaviour)
- Antisocial behaviour (incivility, rudeness, absenteeism)
- Linked to group norms, stress, and
poor emotional regulation.
What are the types of norms? (4)
- Performance norms: How hard to work, how much to produce.
- Appearance norms: Dress code, when to look busy.
- Social arrangement norms: Who to lunch with, form friendships.
- Resource allocation norms: Distribution of tasks, pay, equipment.
What are the impacts of group status?
- high status members resist pressures to conform
- may introduce new or counterproductive norms
high status: more assertive & interrupt others, dominate convos, share ideas
low status: less active even when knowledgeable, leads to group underperformance
group status shapes how others see you
affiliation with low-status/ stigmatised groups can hurt perceptions
How to reduce social loafing?
high work ethic, conscientiousness, agreeableness
set clear group goals, encourage peer evaluation
use inter-group competition
select motivated group members
make indiv contributions visible
how to improve group cohesiveness?
- make group smaller
- increase time spent together
- stimulate competition with other groups
- give rewards to the group rather than to indiv members
What are the pros and cons of group decision making?
Pros
Cons
What is groupthink?
the norm
How to prevent groupthink?
- limit group size (<10) to retain indiv responsibility
- encourage impartial leadership avoid early opinion sharing
- appoint a devil’s advocate to challenge assumptions
- use structured decision-making techniques to surface diverse views
