Hazards

Question 1

“Factors leading to mudflows (lahars)”

Answer 1

Rapid melting of ice/snow (high altitudes)
Heavy rain/tropical storms after eruption
Water + ash + rocks + pyroclastic debris
Flow down valleys/river channels
Gravity affects speed

Question 2

Challenges in managing flood risk from tropical storms (Superstorm Sandy, USA)

Answer 2

Impacts (AO1):
Storm surge up to 4 m → coastal flooding in NYC & New Jersey
Heavy rainfall → overwhelmed drainage systems, urban flooding
High winds → damage to buildings, power lines, transport networks
Social vulnerability → low-income areas hardest hit, evacuation difficulties

Question 3

Management challenges (AO2):

Answer 3

Physical: Flat, coastal land → slow drainage, flooding spreads widely
Scale: Large urban area → difficult to deploy emergency services across hundreds of km²
Cost: Maintaining/repairing flood defences & infrastructure very expensive
Evacuation: Millions of people → coordination is complex; some residents refused to evacuate
Urban complexity: Dense population & transport networks make flood response harder

Question 4

Evaluation / Insight:

Answer 4

HIC status → better technology and resources mitigated some impacts (floodwalls, early warnings)
Still significant challenges → shows managing tropical storm floods is complex even in developed areas
Lesson: Preparedness, infrastructure, and planning are key to reducing risk

Question 5

Prediction in wildfire management – Pacific Palisades

Answer 5

Identifies high-risk areas (dry vegetation, steep slopes, wind)
Guides evacuation & firefighter deployment
Tools: Fire Danger Maps, Fuel Moisture Maps, Haines Index
Limits: Wind/topography can make fires spread unexpectedly
Evaluation: Reduces damage & loss of life, but works best with mitigation & emergency planning

Question 6

Seismic hazard will always be harder to manage then volcanic hazards due to their unpredictability and scale to what extent do you agree with this view 20 marker

Answer 6

Seismic hazard (earthquake) → Tōhoku, Japan (HIC)

Tōhoku clearly shows the unpredictability, large scale, and difficulty of managing seismic hazards even in an HIC.

Volcanic hazard → Mount Mayon, Philippines (LIC)

Mount Mayon shows that volcanic hazards, while dangerous, can often be managed with monitoring and evacuation.

Question 7

What is the hmm

Answer 7

The hazard management model shows the mitigation preparation responds and recovery of a event

Question 8

What is the Park Model

Answer 8

The Park Model shows four stages of human response to hazard

Pre disaster relief rehabilitation reconstruction