1
Q
What are the functions of blood?
A
- Takes nutrients from digestive tract to body tissues
- Carries O2 from lungs to tissues
- Carries CO2 from tissues to lungs
- Carries waste from tissues to kidneys
- Temperature control
- Water Balance
- pH Regulation
- Clotting Factors and Ability
- Defense system from Disease
2
Q
What waste is carried from the tissues to the kidneys through the blood stream?
A
Carbon Dioxide
3
Q
How does blood control temperature?
A
by transporting heat from deep tissues to surface
4
Q
How is water balanced?
A
- by the kidneys
- water can be excreted or reabsorbed
5
Q
What is the purpose of clotting factors and abilities of blood?
A
- to keep the circulatory system a closed system
2. has the ability to stop bleeding
6
Q
What are the components of blood?
A
- Plasma
- Erythrocytes
- Leukocytes
- Thrombocytes
7
Q
What makes up plasma?
A
- 90% water
- Plasma Proteins
- Serum
8
Q
If 90% of plasma is water, what is the other 10%?
A
- dissolved particles
1. electrolytes
2. hormones
3. waste products
4. proteins
9
Q
What is the function of plasma?
A
- bathes all cells in body and protects them from the external environment
- acts as a buffer to stabilize pH
10
Q
What are the plasma proteins?
A
- Albumin
2. Globulin
11
Q
What is Albumin?
A
- a large molecule that aids in keeping fluid inside the vascular system
- is the most abundant protein
12
Q
What does Albumin transport by binding?
A
- Nutrients
- Waste Products
- Hormones
13
Q
Where is Albumin produced?
A
liver
14
Q
What are the 3 globulin proteins?
A
- Alpha
- Beta
- Gamma
15
Q
What do Alpha globulins do?
A
transport stuff
16
Q
What do Beta globulins do?
A
have fibrinogen which is essential for blood clotting
17
Q
Where are Alpha and Beta globulins produced?
A
liver
18
Q
What do Gamma globulins do?
A
immunity and resistance to disease
19
Q
Where are Gamma globulins produced?
A
produced by plasma cells and lymphocytes when stimulated by antigens
(Not produced by liver)
20
Q
How do Gamma globulins provide an immune response?
A
these antibodies react against antigens such as bacteria or foreign particles
21
Q
What are all the functions of Plasma Proteins?
A
- Transportation
- clotting
- immune response
- buffering pH
22
Q
What is serum?
A
plasma without the clotting factors or fibrinogen
23
Q
What do Erythrocytes look like?
A
- biconcave disc
- smooth edges
- central pallor
- non-nucleated in mammals
24
Q
What is the function of Erythrocytes?
A
specialized for O2 transport
25
How do erythrocytes carry oxygen?
with hemoglobin
| - transports O2 and CO2
26
How is hemoglobin structured?
1 protein globin
| 4 non-protein hemes
27
What is attached to one hemoglobin molecule?
- 4 irons per heme
| - 4 oxygen per heme
28
What is it called when hemoglobin is combined with O2?
Oxyhemoglobin
29
Why is blood red?
hemoglobin is red
30
How are blood cells produced?
produced from undifferentiated stem cells which are capable of becoming many different types of cells
31
What is another word for undifferentiated stem cells?
pluripotent
32
How do blood cells mature?
1. become smaller
2. nucleus becomes smaller or are lost in RBCs
3. blue cytoplasm = younger cells
4. cytoplasm color changes as the cell matures
33
What does it mean when a blood cell sill has nucleoli?
- it is a younger cell
| - sign of metabolic growth and activity
34
What does -blast mean?
least differentiated cell in series, young cell
35
What does -cyte mean?
more mature cell
36
How is red blood cell production regulated?
by erythropoiesis produced by kidneys
37
What stimulates red blood cell production?
decreases in O2 in tissues or decreased hemoglobin concentration
38
What is the cycle of the RBC?
1. Rubriblast
2. Prorubricyte
3. Rubricyte
4. Metarubricyte
5. Polychromatophil or reticulocyte
6. Mature Erythrocyte
39
What is a rubriblast?
| What does it contain?
- earliest cell
- nucleoli
- inner chromatin
- distinct
- blue tint
40
What is a Prorubricyte?
| What does it contain?
- coarsening of chromatin
- nucleoli disappearing
- hemoglobin production starts
41
What is a Metarubricyte?
nucleated red blood cell
| NRBC
42
What is a polychromatophil/ reticulocyte?
| What does it contain?
- no nucleus
- some residual DNA (blue)
- larger than mature RBC
- released into blood stream and circulates for 1-2 days
43
How do polychromatophils/ reticulocytes stain?
when stained, shows blue stippling
| basophilic stippling
44
How many polychromatophils/ reticulocytes should be in a blood smear?
1-2% normally
45
What does an increase in polychromatophils/ reticulocytes mean?
body's response to decreased RBC levels
| - anemia
46
How long is the lifecycle of a mature erythrocyte?
90-120 days in circulation
47
How does an erythrocyte break down?
1. releases hemoglobin into plasma
2. cell debris removed by macrophages
3. hemoglobin is broken down
48
What are the macrophages that remove broken RBC debris?
1. liver
2. spleen
3. bone marrow
4. lymph nodes
49
What is globin broken down into?
amino acids
50
What are amino acids used for?
to make new proteins
51
How is heme broken down?
- iron is stripped away
| - heme is broken to biliverdin
52
How is biliverdin broken down?
1. unconjugated bilirubin
2. liver
3. conjugated bilirubin
4. becomes bilinogen in feces
5. becomes urobilinogen in urine
53
What are Howell-Jolly bodies?
nuclear remnants in about 1% of RBCs
54
What are Heinz bodies?
- denatured hemoglobin that occurs in about 10% of RBC
| - called a bleb
55
What is the purpose of leukocytes?
- Defend the body against invasion by an organisms or chemicals
- remove debris that results from dead or injured cells
56
Where are leukocytes found?
Act primarily in tissues
57
What do white blood cells do in the bloodstream?
Most are non-functional in blood stream
58
What are the different types of leukocytes?
1. Granulocytes
| 2. Agranulocytes
59
What are granulocytes?
Contain granules within cytoplasm
60
What leukocytes are granulocytes?
1. Neutrophils
2. Eosinophils
3. Basophils
61
What are agranulocytes?
Do not contain granules within cytoplasm
62
What leukocytes are agranulocytes?
1. Lymphocytes
| 2. Monocytes
63
What are granulocytes made from?
Undifferentiated stem cells in red bone marrow
64
What is the cycle of granulated white blood cells?
1. Myeloblast
2. Promyelocytes
3. Myelocye
- eosinophils
- basophils
4. Neutrophils
65
What are Myeloblasts and what do they contain?
- non-granular cytoplasm
- blue with red round nucleus
- Nucleoli
66
What are Promyelocytes and what do they contain?
- distinct granules present
| - nucleoli disappear
67
What are Myelocytes and what do they contain?
- Granules differentiated
| - will stain blue or red
68
What cells are formed directly from Myelocytes?
1. Basophils
| 2. Eosinophils
69
How do you neutrophils further developed after myelocytes?
Undergo further division known as a "band" or immature form
70
What does a neutrophil look like?
- polymorphonucleated leukocytes
| - segmented nucleus
71
What are neutrophils used for?
- first line of defense against infection
| - breaks down necrotic tissue
72
Why do numbers of neutrophils increase rapidly?
when an acute infection is present
73
What is the average transit time for neutrophils?
10 hours
74
What happens when blood moves into tissues?
cannot come back into the bloodstream
75
How do neutrophils leave the tissues?
Lost in secretion or excretions through mucous membranes
76
What do T cells do to the affected cells?
Actively lyses and kills affected cells
77
What do B-cells deal with?
Antigens in blood, plasma and lymph
78
How do B-cells react to antigens?
Antibody production and release into blood and lymph
79
What do T-cells have specific immunity resistance to?
Most bacteria and extracellular phase of viral infection
80
What do eosinophils look like?
- granules stain red with acid dye (eosin)
| - nucleus shape doesn't matter
81
What do eosinophils do?
- ingest products of antibodies and antigens
- anti-parasitic
- phagocytic
- bactericidal
82
How common are eosinophils in the bloodstream?
- normally scarce in the bloodstream
83
What does an increase in eosinophils in the bloodstream indicate?
an increase occurs during a parasitic infections and allergic reactions
84
What do basophils look like?
- granules stain dark blue-purple
- nucleus shape does not matter
- rare
85
What do basophils do?
- role in immunity
- releases substances such as histamine
- releases heparin
86
How does the release of histamine react to the body?
inflammation and allergic reactions
87
What happens when a basophil is stimulated?
degranulation occurs
88
What species has more basophils?
old horses
89
What are lymphocytes used for?
immunity
90
What are antigens?
- substances that elicit specific immune response when present in the body
91
What are antigens capable of recognizing?
self from non-self by protein flags
92
What are antibodies?
specialized protein produced in response to an antigen
93
Example of antibodies
- gamma globulins
| - immunoglobulins (Ig)
94
What are the 5 classes of antibodies?
1: IgG
2: IgM
3: IgE
4: IgA
5: IgD
95
What do IgG and IgM antibodies do?
fight bacteria and viruses
96
What do IgE antibodies do?
allergic responses
97
What do IgA antibodies do?
protects GI, urogenital, and respiratory tracts
98
What do IgD antibodies do and where are they found?
- present on the surface of some lymphocytes (b-lymphs)
| - initiate humoral immune response
99
What can lymphocytes form hundreds of?
different types of sensitized lymphocytes
100
What is there for each sensitized lymphocyte?
antibodies specific for a particular antigen
101
What are the sensitized lymphocytes capable of?
capable of multiplying into large numbers of clones when excited by that antigen
102
Antigens stimulate what type of lymphocyte?
B-lymphs or B-cells
103
What is produced when B-lymphs are stimulated by antigens?
1. immunoglobulins
| 2. antibodies
104
What do lymphocytes look like?
- usually round cells with large round nucleus, little cytoplasm (blue)
- nucleus is dark purple, smooth margins
105
What do T-lymphs or T-Cells function in?
cell mediated immunity
106
What is cell mediated immunity?
- lymphocytic controlled or controlled by T-cells
| - do not secrete antibodies
107
How do T-cells identify antigens?
- have antigen receptors on the surface
| - recognize and react to many types of antigens
108
What happens when antigens reach the lymphoid tissues?
fractions of b-cells are stimulated to undergo rapid cell division
109
When antigens reach the lymph tissues, some divide into plasma cells which produce what?
antibodies
110
In what form do antibodies circulate in the plasma?
as free gamma globulin proteins
111
What do antibodies bind with?
the antigens that caused the production of those antibodies
112
What are memory cells?
B-cells that provide the body with memory of antigen exposure
113
How do memory cells help fight antigens?
helps produce a more rapid response to previously known antigens
114
What percentage of lymphocytes ever appear in the blood stream?
10%
115
Where are lymphocytes found?
- lymph nodes
- liver
- spleen
116
How do recirculating lymphocytes travel through the bloodstream? (where?)
1. lymph node
2. lymphatic or thoracic duct
3. blood
4. lymph node
117
What are the most common lymphocytes that circulate in the blood?
T-Cells
118
How do T-cells form?
- stem cells in red bone marrow
119
Where do B-Cells mature?
lymph nodes
120
How do B-Cells form?
stem cells in red bone marrow
121
Where to T-Cells travel?
travel via bloodstream to thymus gland
122
Where do B-Cells travel?
travel via bloodstream to liver, spleen, lymph nodes
123
Where do T-Cells mature?
Thymus gland
124
What is the average blood transit time for lymphocytes?
30 min
125
Where do lymphocytes increase in numbers?
- lymph nodes
| - spleen
126
What leukocyte is the most predominant in bovines?
lymphocytes
127
What is the cell that is antigenically stimulated?
immunocyte
128
What does an immunocyte look like?
- larger and more intense cytoplasmic color (dark purple)
| - occasionally a clear perinuclear zone
129
What is another name for a perinuclear zone?
Golgi zone
130
What are lymphoblasts?
large lymphs which contain nucleoli within the nucleus
131
What does an increase in lymphoblasts mean?
neoplasia (cancer cells)
132
What do plasma cells look like?
- eccentrically placed round nucleus with pale perinuclear area
- obvious Golgi zone
133
What do monocytes look like?
- large cell
- elongated
- lobulated
- indented nucleus
- lace-like chromatin
- nucleus can be any shape
- gray-blue cytoplasm
134
What do monocytes do?
phagocytosis and digestion of particulate and cellular debris
135
What is interferon?
- proteins that are formed when body is exposed to viral antigens (protection)
136
What is transferrin?
A protein that transports iron
137
What are antigen presenting cells?
- Matchmakers of the circulatory system by bringing antigens to B-Lymphs in the lymph nodes
- monocytes
138
Where do you B – cells usually stay?
In the lymph nodes
139
Where are monocytes formed?
In bone marrow
140
What are Ameboids?
Cells that develop into large phagocytic cells called macrophages in the tissues
141
What do macrophages do?
Ingest bacteria and other foreign substances
142
How do macrophages live?
- can survive in tissues for long periods of time
| - capable of division
143
What do monocytes do in the bloodstream and how long are they there?
- stays in bloodstream for 24 to 36 hours
| - Active in bloodstream
144
How do monocytes compare in different species?
Monocytes are similar in all domestic animals
145
How often are macrophages seen in the bloodstream?
Very rarely
146
What do macrophages look like?
Very very large with lots of vacuolated cytoplasm
147
What percent of neutrophils are found in canine, feline, and equine blood?
60-70%
148
What percentage of lymphocytes are in canine, feline, and equine blood?
10–40%
149
What percentage of eosinophils and monocytes are found in canine, feline, equine, and bovine blood?
0–10% each
150
What percentage of basophils are found in canines, felines, equines, and bovines?
Rare
151
What percentage of neutrophils are found in bovine blood?
10–40%
152
What percentage of lymphocytes are found in bovine blood?
60–70%
153
What do platelets look like?
- Non-nucleated cell fragments that vary in size and shape
| - usually round, smaller than red blood cells
154
What does a platelet cytoplasm look like?
Pale blue with purple pink granules
155
Because platelets are sticky how are they seen in blood smears?
In clumps at the edge of blood smears
156
What do platelets do?
Contribute to hemostasis by providing coagulation factors as well as forming a hemostatic plug which seals breaks in small vessels
- stops bleeding
157
What do platelets absorb and carry on their surfaces?
Plasma factors required for formation of fibrin
158
Where are platelets formed?
In red bone marrow
159
How are platelets formed?
– Megakaryocytes
| - bud off or fragment from cytoplasm of megakaryocyte
160
What is a megakaryocyte?
One of the largest cells in the bone marrow
Forms platelets when broken
161
What is the scientific name for platelets?
Thrombocytes
162
Definition of hemostasis
Arrest of bleeding or circulation
163
What is hemostasis?
promoters and inhibitors of blood coagulation
164
What is the hemostatic process designed to do?
Design to maintain blood within the vessels
Wants to be a closed system
165
When is hemostasis initiated?
When a vascular injury disrupts the blood vessel
166
What are the three things that work together to stop bleeding?
1. Blood vessel
2. Platelets
3. Clotting factors
167
Why is it important to keep blood cells circulating?
To bring oxygen into the body and CO2 and waste products out of the body
168
What happens when a vessel is injured?
- Vessel constricts
- decreases or stops blood flow
- allows time for other hemostatic activities
169
What do platelets do in an undamaged vessel?
Circulate freely, do not stick to inside
170
What do you platelets do in an injured vessel?
Platelets adhere to outside tissue
171
What is collagen?
Insoluble protein found in connective tissue
172
The injured vessel releases chemicals to make the platelets do what?
platelet surfaces to become sticky
173
Other chemicals are released by the injured blood vessel to do what?
(Not platelets)
Facilitate vasoconstriction and contribute to blood clotting
174
What does the formation of a platelet plug do?
May slow or stop bleeding completely
175
What happens if the platelet plug is unable to stop the bleeding because the injury is too large?
Blood clotting may be necessary to stop the bleeding
176
How does gentle pressure on the wound help slow bleeding?
Constricts the blood vessel to slow bleeding but still allows the platelets to get to the injury
177
What is coagulation or blood clotting?
A complex process that involves a number of factors many of which are present in the plasma
178
What does the formation of a blood clot require?
conversion of a soluble protein, fibrinogen, into an insoluble thread like polymer called fibrin
179
What do fibrin threads do?
Form a network that entraps blood cells, platelets, and plasma to form a clot itself
180
How do fibrin threads create a clot?
Fibrin threads adhere to damaged blood vessels and anchor clot in place
181
What do monocytes produce?
1. Interferon
| 2. Transferrin
182
What type of cells are monocytes?
Antigen presenting cells
183
What do Gamma Globulins do to antigens?
it either neutralizes antigens or helps break them down
184
How many hemoglobin are there on one RBC?
up to 300 million hemoglobin molecules
185
What does the decrease in O2 or hemoglobin stimulate?
erythropoiesis
| RBC production
186
Where are neutrophils found?
- Usually occurs in bone marrow
| - if demand for neutrophils is high they will be in the bloodstream
187
How often are neutrophils replaced?
replaced about every 2 1/2 days
188
How do T-Cells respond to antigens besides attacking them?
stimulates inflammation response to attract neutrophils to phagocytize
189
What are eosinophils attracted to?
attracted by and inhibit allergic or anaphylactic reactions
190
How does interferon protect the body?
- antitumor qualities (stops spreading)
| - helps prevent the spread of viruses to other body cells
191
What can sticky platelets do?
platelets adhere to an injured area of a blood vessel to form a platelet plug
192
During coagulation what is fibrinogen converted into?
Fibrin
193
What is the enzyme thrombin produced from?
prothrombin
194
What are the extrinsic factors of hemostasis?
ingredients found outside the vessels
195
What do damaged tissues (collagen) produce?
thromboplastins
196
What do thromboplastins do?
accelerate the clotting mechanisms
197
What are the intrinsic factors of hemostasis?
all components necessary for clotting are present in normal blood
198
How fast do intrinsic factors react to coagulation?
very, very slow compared to extrinsic factors
199
What systems are needed to maintain normal hemostasis?
both intrinsic and extrinsic
200
What happens after clot formation?
clot retraction
201
How does a clot start to retract?
fibrin meshwork shrinks
202
What happens to the damaged vessel after the clot starts to retract?
- becomes denser and stronger
| - edges of damaged vessel are pulled together
203
What happens to the plasma when the clot retracts?
serum is pushed out of the fibrin meshwork
204
Why is serum pushed out of the fibrin meshwork?
because the clotting factors in the plasma were used up and serum was left over
205
During clot dissolution the enzyme plasmin is activated from what?
plasminogen
206
What is another name for plasmin?
fibrinolysin
207
What does plasmin do?
breaks down fibrin and dissolves clots
208
What is clot dissolution activated by?
damaged tissue and thrombin
209
How long does it take for there to be enough plasmin to break down a clot and dissolve it?
a few days
210
What are some anticlotting factors?
- heparin
| - plasmin
211
What does the smooth lining of vessels prevent?
prevents platelets from adhering
212
Where can intravascular clots form?
inside the vascular system
213
What is a thrombus?
if a clot adheres to a vessel wall
214
What does a thrombus do?
stops blood flow
| clot
215
What can happen if a thrombus stays too long?
can block blood supply to the heart and cause heart damage or even heart failure
216
What is an embolus?
intravascular clot floating in the blood
217
What can happen if an embolus gets caught in small vessels?
blocks the blood flow and damaging surrounding tissues
218
What happens when a basophil is stimulated?
can degranulate
