1
Q
list the order of the homini (7)
A
- australopithecus afarensis
- Australopithecus africanus
- Paranthropus robustus
- homo habilis
- homo erectus
- homo sapiens neanderthalensis
- Homo sapiens sapiens
2
Q
what are the identifying features of the Australopithecus afarensis? (5)
A
- 400-500mls cranial capacity
- large canines and diastema
- very prognathic jaw
- prominent brow ridge, low forehead
- large lower jaw
3
Q
what are the identifying features of the Australopithecus africanus? (5)
A
- 400-500mls cranial capacity
- teeth more in proportion, large molars
- very prognathic jaw
- reduced brow ridge but still prominent
- large lower jaw
4
Q
what are the identifying features of Paranthropus robustus? (5)
A
- 530mls cranial capacity
- more proportioned teeth, large molars
- prominent brow ridge
- flared zygomatic arch (cheek bone)
- large lower jaw
5
Q
what are the identifying features of the homo habilis? (5)
A
- 630mls cranial capacity
- teeth proportioned, large narrow molars
- very prognathic jaw
- reduced brow ridge but still prominent
- robust jaw
6
Q
what are the identifying features of the homo Erectus? (5)
A
- 750-1250mls cranial capacity
- smaller teeth than the homo habilis
- prominent brow ridge
- slight prognathism of jaw
- robust jaw in larger individuals
7
Q
what are the identifying features of the homo sapien neanderthalensis? (5)
A
- 1485mls cranial capacity
- teeth smaller, molars in proportion
- reduced brow ridge
- swept back cheek bones give skull a long “streamlined” appearance
- occipital rounding i.e bun shape at back of skull
8
Q
what are the identifying features of the Homo sapiens sapiens? (5)
A
- 1350mls cranial capacity
- all teeth small, small lower jaw
- very small to no brow ridge
- high, vertical forehead
- development of a chin
9
Q
briefly describe the different tool cultures and which hominini group they belong to (5)
A
- oldowan tool culture- pebble tools (Australopithecus to homo habilis)
- acheulian tool culture- hand axes (homo erectus)
- mousterian tool culture- flake tools (homo sapien neanderthalensis)
- cro-magnon tool cultures including: 1. aurignacian tools (blade). 2. solutrean tools (laurel leaf). 3. magdalenian tools (bone and antler)— (homo sapiens)
10
Q
describe oldowan tool culture
A
- pebble tools
- made by smashing two pebbles together and using the sharp edge created
- became blunt very quickly but were easily replaced
- used by australopithecines, Paranthropus robustas, homo habilis
11
Q
describe acheulian tool culture
A
- made of stone, flaked around the edges until they make a tear drop shape
- held in the hand and welded like an axe
- made by homo erectus
- about 20cm in length
12
Q
describe mousterian tool culture
A
- referred to as flake tools as the method of manufacture knocks flakes off a central core stone
- used to scrape animal pelts and make clothing/shelters
- made by homo sapien neaderthalensis
13
Q
describe aurignacian tool culture
A
- commonly used blade tools, used by modern humans 40,000 years ago.
- roughly parallel sides- made by cromagnon people
- used by Homo sapiens
14
Q
describe solutrean tool culture
A
- made by pressure flaking (taken a long time to make)
- laurel lead shaped
- used in ceremonies
- 16cm long, ultra thin and fragile
- made by Homo sapiens
15
Q
describe magdalenian tool culture
A
- made to cut into bone/antler to make other tools with special shapes that would be impossible to take from stone
- used by Homo sapiens
- tools used as fine needles, barbed spear points or spear throwers
- 12cm long
16
Q
what was the effect of the environment on early hominin evolution?
A
- temps fell- forest turned into grassland and natural selection favoured those who were more bipedal
- bipedalism allowed for a greater range of vision, increase in size to deter predators, hands were free for carrying tools, higher reach to get fruit from trees and an improved cooling of the body (less direct sunlight)
17
Q
significant cultural advances in the australopithecines?
A
- simple oldowan (pebble) tools allowed australopithecines to exploit environmental resources
- tool use allowed for australopithecines to exploit a greater range of habitats
- tool use allowed for a greater diversity in diet- taller and larger brains makes for better hunters
18
Q
significant cultural advances in the early homo (homo habilis)?
A
- larger brain due to eating more meat and food sharing behaviour
- males were hunters and females were gatherers
- better communication- exploit resources in the environment
- better communication- sharing of resources (food, water, clothing)
- food sharing created a social structure
- scavenging and hunting required collaboration and hence better communication skills
19
Q
significant cultural advances in the homo erectus?
A
- fire
- shelter building
- sophisticated tools (acheulian hand axe)
- skilled hunters- various techniques
- butchery marks on bones indicate increased use of tools
- gathering would have contributed to 70% of food
- fire is now controlling environment (don’t have to worry about coldness)
- social organisation and mutual cooperation results from complex language (larger bulge of brocca, [speech centre of brain]).
20
Q
significant cultural advances in the Homo sapiens neanderthalensis?
A
- tool making now very sophisticated- mousterian tool culture
- buried the dead
- religion
- belief in life after death
- sophisticated language
- complex society
- look after sick and injured
- social system to share food and other resources such as shelter, clothing, tools, weapons etc)
21
Q
significant cultural advances in the homo sapien sapien (modern human)?
A
- very sophisticated tool use (aurignacian, solutrean and magdalenian)
- very sophisticated language, complex society, religion and rituals
- social system to share food, shelter, clothing, tools and weapons
- oil lamps used
22
Q
compare and contrast cultural evolution between homo habilis and homo sapien neanderthalensis?
A
- habilis had oldowan tool culture, Neanderthal had mousterian tool culture
- habilis had no use of fire, neanderthal had extensive use of fire
- habilis were mainly tree dwellers, neanderthals lived in caves
- habilis has no evidence of music or art (little culture), neanderthals have evidence of dance and costumes, body paint and decorations, music was simple and used flute-like instruments.
- habilis has large bulge of brocca, but larynx not capable of producing complex sounds whereas Neanderthal has excellent speech and communication skills
- habilis are hunter gatherers, more meat eaters due to oldowan tool improvement, neanderthals had harsh environment so all day focused on food
23
Q
briefly describe the hominoidea classification
A
Super family ———–> Hominoidea
|
Family Hylobatidae Hominidae
| | |
Sub family | Ponginae Homininae
| |
Tribe | Gorillini Panini Hominini
| | |
Named Gibbon Gorilla Chimp’ Human
Example
24
Q
what is meant by cultural evolution?
A
ideas and behaviours that are learned and can be passed on to subsequent generations
25
describe 2 effects of a drying climate on the selection pressures directing the evolution of early hominins
a drier climate results in less forestry thus:
1. reduced shelter
2. traditional food sources are now scarce
- both of these mean new food sources must be found
26
how did the manufacturing of bone and stone tools enhance survival ?
replaced the need to develop stronger physical features
27
how did shelter and clothing enhance survival ?
shelter made location of home bases more flexible tents allowed for more moving. clothing enhanced ability to withstand cold.
28
how did use of fire enhance survival?
- deters predators
- created warmth
- helped with hunting
- allowed for longer hours of work due to light source
- helped with cooking to make foods more digestible
29
how did cooperative hunting enhance survival?
could tackle larger game which would be impossible for a solitary hunter
30
how did the development of agriculture enhance survival?
lots of available food meant grains could be stored to last through the whole year
31
how did commerce and communication enhance survival ?
allowed for trade between communities- those with surplus grains traded for tools/pottery
32
what is the human genome project?
- established in 1990, completed 2003
| - mapping the location of the genes on all the 46 chromosomes
33
what is DNA sequencing?
- the determination of the exact order of nucleotides in a DNA sample
- used for genetic screening
34
describe DNA profiling- gel electrophoresis (6)
- DNA is cut at specific sequences using restriction enzymes (the length of each segment is unique to each person [exons and introns])
- DNA is amplified using polymerase chain reaction
- DNA is placed on semi solid gel
- a current is passed through the gel
- negatively charged DNA is attracted to the positive electrode
- smaller pieces moves faster (further) than larger ones resulting in a DNA profile
35
why is PCR used?
-sometimes there is not enough DNA to test
36
how many genes have been mapped and located?
-20,000-25,000 genes
37
what are the 3 main uses the HGP has been put to?
- identify the location of genes involved in genetic diseases
- gene replacement therapy- genetic screening
38
what is a nucleotide?
- nucleotides - deoxynucleotide triphosphate
| - nucleotides bond at the hydroxyl group
39
how are synthetic nucleotides different to normal nucleotides?
-synthetic nucleotides without the OH are added to growing nucleotides making them stop because there is no OH to bond with the next nucleotide
40
why is DNA sequencing useful?
-allows changed alleles to be compared
41
what is the name of the enzyme used to produce duplicates (PCR)
-an enzyme called DNA polymerase is used to produce duplicates
42
how many new fragments can be produced using the PCR process?
- original dna fragment is split and copies made
- each time this process takes place the number of dna fragments doubles
- the dna is amplified to create millions of fragments
43
what are the 3 stages of PCR?
1. DENATURING
a) heat to 96°C
b) dna separates into 2 complimentary strands
2. ANNEALING OR HYBRIDIZATION
a) primers are added
b) primers are a complimentary base sequences at the start of a coding section
c) cooling to 70°C causes primers to bind to single strand dna
3. SYNTHESIS OR PRIMER EXTENSION
a) DNA polymerase added (taq polymerase can withstand high temps) and heated to 78°C to increase the rate of process
b) dna polymerase binds free nucleotides together to make new section of dna using dna ligase to glue the nucleotides into position.
c) process is repeated until millions of copies of the target gene are produced
44
what is a genetic probe?
a fragment of dna labelled with a radioactive isotope or fluorescent marker, if the sequence for a antic disorder is known, a complimentary strand of normal DNA is made and marked with an isotope or fluorescent substance.
45
how do genetic probes work?
the dna is denatured then cooled to allow the marker DNA to bind with subjects DNA therefore locating the gene responsible for the disorder, the marked DNA will only bind with subjects DNA if the sequence is normal.
46
what are genetic probes used for?
used to detect cystic fibrosis, Huntington's, muscular dystrophy and thalassaemia
47
what is a transgenic organism?
when foreign or modified dna is placed into the cells of a different organism, introduced genes become part of the transgenic organism thus are passed on to offspring
48
what is the process involved in creating a transgenic organism?
- isolate the gene of interest
- place gene into the bacterial plasmid (the vector)
- the recombinant dna (plasmid + gene) is cloned to produce many copies
- the copies can be placed into host cells
- host cells incorporate recombinant dna with their own dna and produce proteins from the instructions on the inserted gene.
- dna is cut by a restriction enzyme at a particular point (base sequence) known as the recognition site
- blunt ends are produced by a straight cut
- sticky ends are produced by a staggered cut
- sticky ends are more useful in molecular cloning because they ensure that the human dna fragment is inserted into the plasmid in the right direction
- sticky ends have unpaired nucleotides which enable them to be joined to complimentary strands with sticky ends
- dna ligase is used to glue recombinant into a bacterial plasmid (circular dna)
49
what are the 4 uses of recombinant dna technology?
- producing insulin
- producing human growth hormone
- producing factor 8 for haemophilia (blood clotting protein)
- vaccines- hepatitis B
50
list the order or primates: (9)
1. strepsirrhini (lemur)
2. tariiformes (tarsier)
3. platyrrhini (spider monkey)
4. cercopithecoidea- old world monkeys (baboon)
5. hylobatidae (lesser apes)
6. ponginae (orangutan)
7. gorillini (gorilla)
8. panini (chimp)
9. hominini (human)
51
list the characteristics in the evolutionary trends within the primates
1. PENTADACTYL LIMBS AND DIGITS
- (opposability and prehensility increases from lemur to human)
- all digits have nails instead of claws (some lesser primates still have claws on some digits)
- friction ridges to increase grip- ridges vary
2. SENSE OF SMELL
- decreases from lemur to human
3. STEREOSCOPIC VISION
- lemur approx 90°, increases over primates, humans is 120°
4. BRAIN AND CRANIAL CAPACITY'
- in lemur 24mls, small convolutions and lobes
- degree of increase over primates
- humans have 1350 mls, large numbers of convolutions and large lobes
5. DENTITION
- --
6. REPRODUCTION, GESTATION, PARENTAL CARE AND SEXUAL MATURITY
- lemur gestation 18 weeks, weaned 5 months, infant 10 months, juvenile 1 year, life span 17 years
- human gestation 38 weeks, weaned 2.5 years, infantile 6 years, juvenile 16 years, life span 70 years
human biology
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