1
Q
Describe the spinal cord
A
- Extends from the foramen magnum to the first or second lumbar vertebrae
- Can be divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal (coxy-geal) regions
- 31 pairs of spinal nerves
2
Q
What are the Meninges?
A
-Meninges: the connective tissue covering the spinal cord and brain.
3
Q
What are the functions of the meninges?
A
- Protects the central nervous system and its blood vessels
- Contains the cerebrospinal fluid
- Forms partitions in the skull
4
Q
What is the Dura Mater
A
- Periosteal dura
- Dural venous sinus
- Venous blood
- Dural folds
- Meningeal dura
- Subdural space
- Serous fluid
5
Q
What is the Arachnoid Mater
A
Subarachnoid space
-Cerebrospinal fluid and blood vessels
6
Q
What is the Pia Mater?
A
-Has many small blood vessels
7
Q
In the spinal cord where do the sensory & motor neurons travel?
A
- Sensory neurons travel through the dorsal roots
- Motor (somatic and autonomic) neurons travel though the ventral roots
- Spinal nerves contain sensory neurons and motor (somatic and autonomic)
8
Q
What are the cell bodies of the motor neurons in?
A
-Cell bodies of motor neurons are in horns of grey matter
=Somatic motor neuron cell bodies in anterior (ventral) horn (motor horn)
=Autonomic motor neuron cell bodies in lateral horn
9
Q
What do the Endoneurium, Perineurium & Epineurium surround?
A
-Endoneurium
o Surrounds each axon and its associated Schwann cells
-Perineurium
o Surrounds a group of axons or a nerve fascicle
-Epineurium
o Surrounds a group of fascicles
10
Q
What are the parts of the brain?
A
-Forebrain o Cerebrum o Diencephalon -Midbrain -Hindbrain o Pons o Medulla oblongata o Cerebellum
11
Q
What is the function of the Medulla Oblongata and the centres?
A
-Autonomic reflex centre maintaining body homeostasis
-Cardiovascular centre
o Regulates heart rate, force of heart contraction and blood vessel diameter
-Respiratory centre
o Regulates rate and depth of breathing
-Other reflexes
o Swallowing, vomiting, hiccupping, coughing and sneezing
12
Q
What is the function of the pons, what does it contain?
A
-Pons = bridge
-Contains conduction tracts:
o Longitudinal tracts from the spinal cord to higher brain centres
o Transverse tracts form the cerebrum (motor cortex) and cerebellum
-Sleep centre
o Rapid eye movement
-Respiratory centre
13
Q
What is the function of the mid brain?
A
- Receives visual, auditory and tactile sensory input generating reflex movements of the head, eyes and body
- Controlling movement of the eye
14
Q
What is the function of the Cerebellum?
A
- Cerebellum = little brain
- Controls locomotion, in association with the cerebrum
- Controls fine motor control
- Controls posture and balance
15
Q
What are the parts of the Diencephalon?
A
- Thalamus
- Subthalamus
- Epithalamus
- Hypothalamus
16
Q
What is the function of the Thalamus?
A
-Sensory relay centre or “gateway”
o Anything you hear, see, feel by touch, but NOT smell
-Regulates mood, memory and strong emotions e.g. fear and rage
17
Q
What are the functions of the Hypothalamus?
A
- Maintains homeostasis via the endocrine system
- Regulates heart rate
- Regulates digestive activities (food intake, water balance and thirst)
- Controls muscles in swallowing
- Controls body temperature
- Regulates the sex drive and sexual pleasure
- Regulates mood, motivation and emotions
- Regulates the sleep-wake cycle
18
Q
Name and describe the parts of the Cerebrum
A
- Gyri – elevated tissue or folds
- Sulci – grooves
- Fissures – deep grooves
- Longitudinal fissure – separates left and right hemisphere
- Lateral fissure – separates temporal lobe from rest of the cerebrum
- Central sulcus – separates frontal lobe from parietal lobe
19
Q
What are the lobes of the Cerebrum?
A
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Occipital
- Temporal
- Insula
20
Q
What is the function of the Precentral & Postcentral Gyrus?
A
- Precentral gyrus – primary somatic motor cortex
- Postcentral gyrus – primary somatic sensory cortex (aka primary somatosensory cortex)
21
Q
What is the function of the frontal & parietal lobe?
A
- Frontal lobe – voluntary motor function, motivation, planning, aggression, sense of smell, regulation of emotional behaviour and mood
- Parietal lobe – area which receives most the sensory input, except for smell, hearing, taste and vision
22
Q
What is the function of the occipital & temporal lobe and the insula?
A
- Occipital lobe – receives and processes visual input
- Temporal lobe – receives and processes smell and hearing, and has a role in memory
- Insula – Receives and processes taste information
23
Q
What does the grey & white matter in the cerebral cortex contain?
A
-Grey matter in the cerebral cortex
o Cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals and neuroglial cells
-White matter in the cerebral medulla
o Myelinated axons
-Corpus callosum – connects two cerebral hemispheres together
24
Q
What is the Limbic System?
A
- Role in memory
- “Emotional brain”
25
What is produced in the ventricles, what are they lined with and what are the 1st and 2nd ventricle?
- Four ventricles that are continuous with each other
- Lined with ependymal cells
- Lateral ventricle: first and second ventricle
- Third ventricle
- Fourth ventricle
- Cerebrospinal fluid produced in ventricle
26
What is the function of the cerebrospinal fluid?
- Most cerebrospinal fluid is produced by the choroid plexus
- Fluid found around the brain and spinal cord
- Protects the brain and spinal cord from trauma and provides buoyancy to the brain
- CSF composition: similar to blood plasma but less proteins and different ionic concentration
27
What is the anatomy of the autonomic NS?
```
Sympathetic division
-Thoracolumbar division
o T1 – L2
Parasympathetic division
-Craniosacral division
o S2-S4
o Cranial nerve nuclei
```
28
What responses can be generated by both ANS regulate?
- Heart rate
- Blood pressure
- Airways in lungs
- Digestive tract
- Glands (salivary, gastric, lacrimal)
- Pupil of the eye
29
What is the Sympathetic & Parasympathetic NS?
```
-Sympathetic division:
o Fight or flight
o ‘E division’
-Exercise, emergency, excitement and embarrassment
-Parasympathetic division:
o Rest and digest
o ‘D division’
-Digestion, defecation and diuresis
```
30
What are the regulation of the autonomic NS?
-Autonomic regulation occurs mostly via autonomic reflexes
o Reflexes are an automatic response to a stimulus and are homeostatic
-Autonomic reflex activity is also influenced by the CNS, in particular the hypothalamus
31
What is Autocrine, Paracrine, Neurotransmitter & Endocrin?
Autocrine
-Released by cells and have a local effect on same cell type from which chemical signals released.
Paracrine
-Released by cells and affect other cell types locally without being transported in blood.
Neurotransmitter
-Produced by neurons and secreted into extracellular spaces by presynaptic nerve terminals; travels short distances; influences postsynaptic cells.
Endocrine
-Produced by cells of endocrine glands, enter circulatory system, and affect distant cells.
32
What are the characteristics of the endocrine system?
- Body control system where regulation requires duration rather than speed
- Glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into circulatory system (blood)
33
What are hormone characteristics in the endocrine system and how can the secretion be??
-Hormone characteristics
o Produced in small quantities
o Transported some distance in circulatory system
o Acts on target tissues elsewhere in body
-Hormone secretion can be:
o Acute - sudden release due to stimulus, e.g. adrenaline in response to stress
o Chronic – small variations over long periods, e.g. thyroid hormones
o Episodic – e.g. estrogen & progesterone during menstrual cycle
-Target cells respond to a hormone because they have the correct receptor
34
What are the similarities between the nervous & endocrine system?
-Both systems associated with the brain
o Endocrine – hypothalamus
-May use same chemical messenger as neurotransmitter and hormone.
o E.g. epinephrine
-Two systems are cooperative
o E.g. some parts of endocrine system innervated directly by nervous system (adrenal medulla)
35
What are the differences between the nervous & endocrine system?
```
-Mode of transport
o Axon
o Blood
-Speed of response
o Nervous – instant/milliseconds
o Endocrine – delayed/seconds
-Duration of response
o Nervous – milliseconds/seconds
o Endocrine – minutes/days
```
36
What is the central nervous system control over the endocrine system?
-CNS control over endocrine
o CNS can influence hormone release through hypothalamus
-Hypothalamus synthesizes neuro-hormones and controls hormone release from anterior pituitary
o Adrenal medulla
-Central part of adrenal gland, arose from neural tissue, secretes adrenalin & noradrenalin
37
What is the endocrine systems control over the central nervous system?
-Endocrine control over CNS
o Endocrine system secretes hormones that
-Maintain general health of neural tissue
-Regulate minerals necessary for neural function
-Are needed for normal growth and function of nervous system
38
What are the functions of the endocrine system?
1. Metabolism
2. Control of food intake and digestion
3. Tissue maturation
4. Ion regulation
5. Water balance
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
8. Control of reproductive functions
9. Uterine contractions and milk release
10. Immune system regulation
39
What is the function of the pituitary & hypothalamus?
-Where nervous and endocrine systems interact
-Hypothalamus regulates secretions of anterior pituitary
-Posterior pituitary is an extension of the hypothalamus
-The pituitary gland produces nine major hormones that
o Regulate body functions
o Regulate the secretions of other endocrine glands
40
What is the structure of the pituitary gland?
```
-Posterior pituitary
o Extension of the nervous system via the infundibulum
o Secretes neuropeptides
-Anterior pituitary
o Synthesizes and secretes hormones
```
41
How does the hypothalamus communicate with the anterior gland for hormone release?
- Stimuli within nervous system regulate secretion of releasing hormones from neurons in hypothalamus
- Releasing hormones pass to anterior pituitary
- Releasing hormones stimulate the release of hormones from anterior pituitary
- Anterior pituitary hormones travel in blood stream to target tissue, which may be another endocrine gland
42
What are the functions of the anterior hormones growth hormone, thyroid stimulating & Adrenocorticotrophic?
1. Growth hormone (GH)
- Acts on most cells of body
- Stimulates uptake of amino acids; protein synthesis
- Stimulates breakdown of fats to be used as an energy source
- Promotes bone and cartilage growth
- Regulates blood levels of nutrients after a meal
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Stimulates thyroid to secrete T3 and T4
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol and aldosterone
43
What are the functions of the anterior hormones melanocyte stimulating, luteinising/follicle stimulating and prolactin?
4. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
-Causes melanocytes to produce more melanin
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH) & Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
-Both hormones regulate production of gametes and reproductive hormones
o Testosterone in males
o Estrogen and progesterone in females
6. Prolactin
-Role in milk production
44
How does the hypothalamus communicate with the posterior gland for hormone release?
- Stimuli within nervous system cause neurons in hypothalamus to increase or decrease action potential frequency
- AP’s conducted along neurons from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary. Axon terminals of these neurons store neuro-hormones.
- AP’s cause release of neurohormones into circulatory system
- Posterior pituitary hormones travel in blood stream to target tissue
45
What are the functions of the posterior hormones antidiuretic and oxytocin?
1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
- Stimulates increased reabsorption of water from nephrons, so less (more concentrated) urine is produced (water is conserved by body)
2. Oxytocin
- Uterine contractions during birth
- Ejection of milk from lactating breast
46
In a negative feedback how is the hormone secretion controlled?
- Anterior pituitary secretes a tropic hormone which travels in blood to target endocrine cell
- Hormone from target endocrine cell travels to its target
- Hormone from target endocrine cells has negative feedback effect on hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to decrease secretion of tropic hormone
47
In the pancreas how is insulin secretion regulated?
-Located along near intestine and stomach; retroperitoneal
-Exocrine gland
o Produces pancreatic digestive juices
-Endocrine gland
o Consists of pancreatic islets
-Alpha cells - secrete glucagon
-Beta cells - secrete insulin
48
In a positive feedback how is the hormone secretion controlled?
- Anterior pituitary secretes a tropic hormone which travels in blood to target endocrine cell
- Hormone from target endocrine cell travels to its target
- Hormone from target endocrine cells has positive feedback effect on hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to increase secretion of tropic hormone
49
What is the adrenal medulla?
- Near superior poles of kidneys
- Inner medulla; outer cortex
- Medulla – formed from neural crest, sympathetic
Human Structure & Function
flashcards
Decks in class (11)
# Cards
-
What is Life?32
-
How do cells do what they do?71
-
Are you what you eat?64
-
Why do we breathe?41
-
How do we fuel our body?34
-
How do things get around the body?42
-
How do we get rid of toxic waste?43
-
How do we control ourselves?40
-
How does it all work?49
-
How do we protect ourselves?30
-
How do cells grow, specialise & die?55
