1
Q
At what age to infants coo, smile, and recognise voices? (Trick: 3-letter word)
A
3 months — “Coo” is 3 letters.
2
Q
When do babies babble, laugh, and notice music? (Trick: 6-letter word)
A
6 months — “Babble” is 6 letters.
3
Q
When do infants imitate sounds/actions and respond to named objects? (Trick: 9-letter word)
A
9 months — “Imitation” has 9 letters.
4
Q
When do toddlers say 1–2 words meaningfully, like “mama” and “dada”?
A
12 months — 1–2 words milestone.
5
Q
Vocabulary ≈ 18 words, repeats overheard words, follows simple commands — age?
A
18 months — “18 words” trick.
6
Q
Uses 2-word phrases, vocab ≥ 50 words, follows 2-step directions — age?
A
2 years — “2-word phrases” trick.
7
Q
Uses 3-word phrases, vocab ≥ 200 words, understands time/pronouns — age?
A
3 years — “3-word phrases” trick.
8
Q
Uses 4+ word phrases/sentences, understands “how/why,” groups objects — age?
A
4 years — “4+ word phrases” trick.
9
Q
What’s the biggest environmental factor in language development?
A
Quantity & quality of language exposure.
10
Q
How does home language affect second language learning?
A
Strong first-language foundation makes learning easier.
11
Q
Name 3 risks for environmental language delay.
A
Low exposure, negative social content, lack of opportunities.
12
Q
Name 3 causes of language delay.
A
Lack of exposure, neurological/cognitive disorders, hearing loss.
13
Q
How can ASD affect language?
A
Delayed speech, poor pragmatic language, monotone prosody.
14
Q
Define pragmatic language.
A
Using language appropriately in social contexts.
15
Q
What are the 3 components of social competence?
A
Social behavior, social knowledge, social cognition.
16
Q
Define acceptance in social competence.
A
Being welcomed and included in a peer group.
17
Q
What is group formation?
A
Process of forming social groups, influenced by similarity and competence.
18
Q
Isolation vs. introversion — key difference?
A
Isolation = lack of connections; introversion = preference for low interaction.
19
Q
List 3 traits linked to popularity.
A
Social skills, confidence, humor (others: looks, intelligence, status, personality).
20
Q
What are the 3 levels of Kohlberg’s theory?
A
Pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional.
21
Q
Pre-conventional focus?
A
Avoiding punishment, seeking rewards.
22
Q
Conventional focus?
A
Conforming to social norms.
23
Q
Post-conventional focus?
A
Universal moral principles.
24
Q
What’s Stage 1 of Kohlberg?
A
Punishment and obedience orientation.
25
What's Stage 2 of Kohlberg?
Instrumental relativist (self-interest, rewards).
26
What's Stage 3 of Kohlberg?
“Good boy/good girl” orientation.
27
What's Stage 4 of Kohlberg?
Law and order orientation.
28
What's Stage 5 of Kohlberg?
Social contract orientation.
29
What's Stage 6 of Kohlberg?
Universal ethical principles.
30
How does perspective-taking change across Kohlberg's levels?
Moves from self-focused → authority-focused → universal-other-focused.
31
Who developed the 16PF (16 Personality Factor) model?
Raymond Cattell.
32
What are surface traits in Cattell's theory?
Observable personality traits that cluster together in behavior.
33
What are source traits in Cattell's theory?
Underlying traits that form the core of personality.
34
How many source traits did Cattell identify?
16.
35
How did Cattell determine the 16 source traits?
Factor analysis of personality data.
36
Who proposed a model with 3 major personality dimensions?
Hans Eysenck.
37
What are Eysenck's 3 personality dimensions?
Extraversion-Intraversion, Neuroticism-Stability, Psychoticism.
38
What does high extraversion indicate?
Sociability, outgoingness, stimulation-seeking.
39
What does high neuroticism indicate?
Emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness.
40
What does high psychoticism indicate?
Aggression, creativity, nonconformity.
41
What does OCEAN stand for in the Big 5 Model?
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
42
Which Big 5 trait involves curiosity, imagination, and openness to new ideas?
Openness.
43
Which Big 5 trait involves organisation, dependability, and discipline?
Conscientiousness.
44
Which Big 5 trait relates to sociability and assertiveness?
Extraversion.
45
Which Big 5 trait involves trust, cooperation, and kindness?
Agreeableness.
46
Which Big 5 trait involves emotional instability and negative emotions?
Neuroticism.
47
What do trait theorists focus on?
Identifying and measuring consistent personality characteristics.
48
What is a trait?
A relatively stable characteristic that influences behavior.
49
How do trait theories differ from psychoanalytic or behaviorist theories?
They describe personality, not explain its development.
50
What is self-actualisation?
Fulfilling one's potential and becoming one's true self.
51
Name 3 traits of self-actualisers.
Realism, acceptance, autonomy.
52
What is a peak experience?
A moment of intense joy, creativity, or fulfillment.
53
What is a fully functioning person, according to Carl Rogers?
Someone living in harmony with their deepest feelings and self-image.
54
What is congruence in Rogers' theory?
Alignment between self-concept and experience.
55
What is unconditional positive regard?
Acceptance and love without conditions, fostering growth.
56
Name 4 traits of a healthy personality.
Self-acceptance, realistic goals, capacity for intimacy, resilience.
57
Why is self-acceptance important?
Promotes self-esteem and well-being.
58
Why are realistic goals important?
They are attainable, motivating, and reduce frustration.
59
How does capacity for intimacy show in a healthy personality?
Ability to form deep, trusting, and mutually supportive relationships.
60
What is positive psychology?
The study of strengths, virtues, and factors that help individuals and communities thrive.
61
Name 3 pillars of positive psychology.
Positive emotions, engagement, meaning (other models include relationships and accomplishment).
62
What is hardiness?
A personality style that helps resist stress.
63
Name the 3 components of hardiness.
Commitment, control, challenge.
64
What does 'commitment' mean in hardiness?
Involvement in life's activities and having a purpose.
65
What does 'control' mean in hardiness?
Belief in one's ability to influence events.
66
What does 'challenge' mean in hardiness?
Seeing change as a growth opportunity, not a threat.
67
Wha are the concepts of personal identity?
Personality, beliefs, values, experiences, physical and social characteristics, encompassing cognitive, emotional, and social aspects of self-concept.
68
What is identity formation and when does it typically occur?
Identity formation is the adolescent process of questioning and exploring the self by experimenting with roles, values, beliefs, and behaviors to find authenticity.
69
How do family and peers influence identity formation?
Family provides socialisation and role models; peers offer validation and acceptance, both shaping identity development.
70
What cultural and societal factors affect personal identity?
Religion, race, SES, cultural customs, and societal norms influence how identity forms.
71
How do major adult life events influence identity?
Events like marriage, childbirth, loss, career changes, or moving can evolve one's sense of self, adding complexity.
72
What is work identity and why is it important?
Work identity stems from one's occupation, including roles and values, shaping purpose, meaning, and community belonging.
73
Describe ethnic identity.
Ethnic identity connects individuals to their cultural background, customs, values, and group belonging, impacting self-perception especially for marginalised groups.
74
What does gender identity involve?
A person's understandng and experience of their gender (man, woman, nonbinary), including their feelings and behaviors tied to gender.
75
What other identities contribute to personal identity?
Sexual identity (orientation and behavior), religious identity (beliefs and practices), and political identity (beliefs and affiliations).
76
What is a midlife crisis?
A phase in middle age marked by introspection, dissatisfaction, questioning life choices, and sometimes desire for change, though it isn't universally experienced or scientifically proven.
77
What are some theories explaining midlife crises?
Empty nest syndrome.
78
How can midlife crises be managed?
Positive changes, new hobbies or careers, accepting aging, focussing on meaning, and seeking professional help if needed.
79
What are physical changes that typically occur in normal aging?
Decline in muscle mass/strength, cardiovascular/respiratory function, sensory abilities like vision and hearing, increased fall risk and chronic disease.
80
How do hormonal changes affect aging?
Decreases in testosterone and oestrogen contribute to muscle loss and strength decline.
81
What social changes accompany aging?
Loss of social support networks, increased isolation, reduced community participation, changes in living arrangements, and experiences of ageism.
82
What cognitive changes are associated with aging?
Declines in processing speed, working memory, executive function (due to decreased neural plasticity).
83
What emotional changes are associated with aging?
Increased stress vulnerability, higher depression risk, more negative emotions, often linked to physical, social, and cognitive changes.
84
What types of loss do older adults commonly face?
Loss of loved ones, physical abilities, independence, social roles, and social connections.
85
How can loss affect older adults emotionally?
It can cause grief, loneliness, decreased self-esteem, and distress.
86
What interventions can help older adults cope with loss?
Grief counselling, social support, reminiscence therapy, social engagement, physical activity, and cognitive stimulation.
87
How does personality typically change with age?
Increased emotional stability, decreased anxiety/neuroticism, but potential rigidity (crystallisation), and less openness to new experiences.
88
How can cognitive decline affect personality?
Memory and attention problems may reduce emotional regulation, increasing emotional instability and negative affect.
89
How does attitude impact well-being in old age?
Positive attitudes towards aging correlate with higher life satisfaction and resilience; negative attitudes correlate with lower well-being.
90
What is the status of elderly in society?
Varies by culture: sometimes marginalised and stigmatised (ageism), whereas other times respected for wisdom; economic status influences quality of life.
91
What healthcare issues do older adults encounter?
Greater need for medical care, but may face access barriers, high costs, and limited long-term care options.
92
What role does genetics play in human development?
Genetics influences physical and behavioral characteristics from conception to old age, shaping traits like eye color, height, intelligence, and susceptibility to certain diseases.
93
What is meant by gene-environment interaction?
It refers to the complex interplay where genetic predispositions may only manifest under certain environmental conditions, affecting development and behavior.
94
Give an example of a genetic condition influenced by a specific mutation.
Cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anaemia.
95
How much of intelligence is estimated to be heritable according to twin studies?
Approximately 50-70%.
96
Can genetics alone determine mental health outcomes?
No, environmental factors also play a significant role alongside genetics.
97
What is the differential susceptibility theory?
It suggests some individuals are more sensitive to environmental influences, being affected more by both negative and positive environments depending on their genetics.
98
What is MRI used for in neurodevelopmental studies?
MRI provides detailed images of brain structure, allowing measurement of brain size, shape, and density changes during development.
99
What brain changes does MRI reveal during childhood and adolescence?
An increase in brain volume, especially in areas linked to cognitive and emotional processing like the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.
100
How does fMRI contribute to understanding brain development?
It measures brain activity by detecting blood flow changes during tasks, showing maturation of neural connections over time.
101
What does diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) study in the brain?
The microstructure and connectivity of white matter tracts important for communication between brain regions.
102
How has neuroimaging helped understand developmental disorders like autism and ADHD?
MRI shows reduced brain volume in certain regions in autism, while fMRI reveals altered brain activity in ADHD affecting attention and impulse control.
103
What recent neuroimaging technique is especially useful for studying infants and young children?
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), which measures changes in blood oxygenation noninvasively.
104
Why is multimodal neuroimaging beneficial in brain development studies?
Combining techniques like MRI, fMRI, and DTI provides a comprehensive understanding of brain structure, function, and connectivity.
105
What is the significance of using nonhuman primates in neuroimaging studies?
They provide insights into neural mechanisms underlying cognitive and emotional processing due to similarities with human brain structure and function.
106
What 3 factors make up the biopsychosocial model?
Biological, psychological, and social.
107
Which theory proposes fixed development stages in a set order?
Stage theory of development.
108
Which theory emphasises interactions between family, school, and community?
Systems theory of development.
109
Which theory includes microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem?
Ecological systems theory.
110
Which perspective stresses the role of culture and social context in development?
Socio-cultural perspective.
111
What does the human development perspective focus on?
Lifelong growth, change, and adaptation across multiple domains.
112
Which study follows the same individuals over time?
Longitudinal studies.
113
Which study compares different ages at a single point in time?
Cross-sectional studies.
114
Which method manipulates variables to test cause and effect?
Experimental studies.
115
Which method observes people in real-life settings without manipulating variables?
Naturalistic observation.
116
What is the Strange Situation?
A lab-based separation-reunion assessment used to measure infant-caregiver attachment.
117
What attachment style shows distress at separation but comfort on reunion?
Secure attachment.
118
Which parenting style is high warmth and high control?
Authoritative parenting.
119
Which parenting style is low warmth and low control?
Neglectful (uninvolved) parenting.
120
In Tuckman's model, which stage involves conflict as roles are negotiated?
Storming.
121
Name the 4 attachment patterns Ainsworth identified.
Secure, avoidant, ambivalent (resistant), and disorganised.
122
What characterises avoidant attachment?
Little distress at separation and avoidance of the caregiver on reunion.
123
What characterises ambivalent (resistant) attachment?
Distress at separation and ambivalence or resistance to comfort on reunion.
124
What characterises disorganised attachment?
Confused, erratic, or contradictory behaviors often linked to caregiver fear.
125
Who first proposed the 4 parenting styles and who later refined the model?
Baumrind proposed them; Maccoby and Martin later refined the model.
126
What is a key limitation of surveys and self-report measures?
They can be affected by subjectivity and responses biases (e.g. social desirability, recall bias).
127
List Tuckman's 5 canonical stages of group development.
Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, Adjourning (Mourning).
128
Who proposed the biopsychosocial model and in what year?
George Engel in 1977.
129
According to the biopsychosocial model, is cognitive development fixed or dynamic?
It is dynamic and nonlinear.
130
What is the core idea of Piaget's model of cognitive development?
Children actively construct understanding through experiences, progresses through distinct developmental stages.
131
Name Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development with their age ranges.
Sensorimotor (0-2), Preoperational (2-7), Concrete Operational (7-11), Formal Operational (11+).
132
What characterises Piaget's sensorimotor stage?
Learning through senses and movements, exploring and manipulating objects.
133
What characterises Piaget's preoperational stage?
Use of symbols to represent ideas but lacking logical and systematic thinking.
134
What characterises Piaget's concrete operational stage?
Logical thinking about concrete objects and situations; mental operations like classification and ordering.
135
What characterises Piaget's formal operational stage?
Abstract reasoning, logical thought, and considering hypothetical scenarios.
136
What are common criticisms of Piaget's model?
Underemphasis on culture, language, social context, and individual differences.
137
What is a growth mindset?
The belief that abilities can be developed though effort or learning.
138
How should one communicate with somone in the preoperational stage?
Use concrete, simple language and visual aids to explain concepts.
139
How should one communicate with someone in the formal operational stage?
Use abstract, complex language with logical reasoning and hypothetical scenarios.
140
What are 3 main components of a child's social competence?
Social behavior, social knowledge, and social cognition.
141
According to Mahler's theory, into what 2 subphases is the autistic phase divided?
Normal autistic phase and symbiotic phase.
142
When does the normal autistic phase occur, and what characterises it?
In the first 2-3 years of life; the child is in a drowsy, undifferentiated onness with the environment and cannot differentiate self from nonself.
143
What happens during the symbiotic phase according to Mahler?
The child's sense of self gradually emerges, becoming aware of its own body and developing differentiation from the environment.
144
Erikson's Stages of Psychological Development and Crisis mnemonic?
My Sexy Girl In Red Loves Sucking Dick
0-1 = MY - Mistrust vs trust
2-3 = SEXY - Shame/doubt vs autonomy
3-6 = GIRL - Guilt vs initiative
6-12 = IN - Inferiority vs industry
12-21 = RED - Role confusion vs identity
21-40 = LOVES - (intimacy) vs isolation
40-65 = SUCKING - Stagnation vs generativity
65+ = DICK - Despair vs ego integrity
145
Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development?
Old Age Paedos Love Genitals
0-1 = Oral
2-3 = Anal
3-6 = Phallic (Oedpius, Elektra)
6-12 = Latent
12-21 = Genital
146
Mahler's Stages of Separation-Individuation Mnemonic?
A Strong Dog Practices Refusing Orders
Birth - 1 mo = Autistic phase
1 - 5 mo = Symbiotic phase
5 - 9 mo = Differentiation
9 - 15 mo = Practicing
15 - 24 mo = Rapprochement
24 - 36 mo = Object Constancy
