1
Q
Post-hoc fallacy
A
Logical error > casual inference (single arrow)
“because A comes/came before B > A = B”
2
Q
Bidirectional influences
A
- Environments and self influence one another (two-way arrow)
- Children/Infants not passive recipient of what is occurring around them
and can shape their own environments
3
Q
Infant determinism
A
Belief that early infant experience are influential
4
Q
Childhood fragility
A
Assumption: any bad experience will affect them for life BUT Kids can demonstrate a lot of resilience even in cases of bad or negative experiences
5
Q
Longitudinal Design
A
Used when trying to answer what factors lead to differences at a later time
i.e. the why
Limits:
- Take a long time though and can have participant drop out overtime
6
Q
Cross-sectional study
A
Snapshot of various ages in a fixed time or point in time
Limits:
- Can’t account for cohort effects
7
Q
Gene-environment interaction
A
A particular gene impacts a behaviour developing in a certain environment
8
Q
Nature via nurture
A
Genetic predisposition may guide us to select or choose the environments we create
9
Q
Gene expression
A
Increased risks for certain behaviour via genes but onset is only IF the
environment interaction sets the stage and turn the gene “on” or “off”
10
Q
Gametes
A
Reproductive cells (eggs and sperm)
11
Q
Germinal Period (0-2 wks)
A
“Zygotes or blastocyst”
Egg fertilized by sperm; divides and replicates
12
Q
Embryonic period (2-8 wks)
A
“Embyro”
- Middle of second week; cell takes form and has functions
- Brain, limbs, facial features, heart,
liver, sexual differentiation
13
Q
Fetal periods (37 - 42 wks)
A
“Fetus”
- Onwards from 9th week; major organs form; brain develops
14
Q
When does the brain develop?
A
- Occurs ~18 days post fertilization
- Brain development is rapid
15
Q
What is Proliferation?
A
- Birth of new neurons
- Day 18 to 6 months (in utero) = astronomical rate of neuron development
16
Q
Environmental hazards affecting development
A
- Mother’s health and or diet
- Teratogens
- Diseases - german measles
- Environmental exposure
17
Q
What are Terateogens?
A
- Prescription drugs, illicit drugs, nicotine (increased prematurity),
alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome) - Thalidomide - prescribed drug for women but it had adverse
effects on babies (limb deformity)
18
Q
Risks to prenatal development
A
- genetic disorders
Prematurity:
- Full term = 37 to 42 weeks
- Premature = Born before 37 weeks
19
Q
Reflexes babies are born with
A
- Sucking reflex - putting something close to or in a babies mouth and they
suck - Rooting reflex - stroking a babies’ cheek > they turn and open their mouth
in that direction
20
Q
Motor milestones
A
Sitting without support = 5 - 8 mons
Crawling = 9 months
Standing = 11 months
Coasting/Cruising = 12 months
Walking without assistance = 10 - 16 months
Running = 18-24 months
21
Q
What affects pace/motor development?
A
- body weight (heavier babies achieve milestones later)
- culture (swaddling, wraparounds, massage and stretching)
22
Q
Differences between theories of cognitive development
A
- Development stage-like = Qualitative and large differences
- Continuous = Small changes that gradually build up overtime
23
Q
Differences between “domain-general” and “domain-specific”
A
- General - change is uniform = all aspects of development in cognitions are occurring
simultaneously
-Specific - change is specialized to an area = Changes in one area are specific to one domain
24
Q
Principle sources of learning
A
Innate = born knowing and have ingrained knowledge
Experience = have to learn everything from scratch
25
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Children are not passive recipients to their
environment but rather active contributors to their learning and development -
"little scientists"
- Stage theorist and contructivist
26
Piaget's Stages of Development
Sensorimotor
Pre-operational
Concrete operations
Formal Operations
27
What are schemas?
mental representations of the world which children used as a guide or
how they interpreted experiences and changes via Assimilation or Accommodation
28
Sensorimotor
Ages: 0-2
Major Developments:
- Object permanence
29
Pre-operational
Ages: 2-6
Major Developments:
- Kids start to do pretend play
- Failures of understanding- Conservation (understand that a physical properties of an object are the same even
when the appearance changes)
30
Formal Operations
Ages:12 to adult
Major Developments:
- Can reason abstractly
- Thinking in hypothetical terms
31
Concrete operations
Ages: 7-12
Major Developments:
- Advanced reasoning; more organized in thinking and logic
32
Lev Vygotsky's Development theory
Social and cultural influences in development
33
Scaffolding
Support and structuring from parents in early childhood; pulling away later in life
34
Zone of proximal development
phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction
35
What is Centration?
focus on one aspect of object
36
What is Egocentrism?
Only being able to view things from personal perspective
37
What is Mental operations?
lack of reversibility or We can mentally reverse the action in our minds but
children have an issue with this function
38
What is involved in the concrete operations stage?
- Children no longer fail the tasks from earlier stages and they have the
ability to perform mental tasks for objects:
Verbalize, visualize and mentally manipulate objects
39
Challenges to Piaget's theory
- Old theory
- not all aspects accepted
- Underestimation of children's cognitive abilities
- continuous instead of stage-like, specific over general
- Are the stages really/truly universal? Does everyone reach formal operations?
- Role of culture was not considered
40
What is involved in the formal operations stage?
Children now able to use systematic ways to solve problems (in
earlier stages, could not
ex. Pendulums task - Kids given a hook and strings with different lengths,
and objects that have different weight
41
Cognitive abilities - categorization
- Ability to function relies on categorization
- Infant categorization is not based on function but
rather perception (how similar things look to one
another)
42
Cognitive abilities - naive physics and behaviour of physical objects
- How objects act (ex. an unsupported object)
-
43
What is Naive psychology?
- Theory of mind: ability to reason about what
others believe in
- False belief task (children assume people know what they do)
44
Cognitive abilities - numbers and counting
- Ability to count is not universal
- Counting = complex
45
Numbers are...
- quantities
- specific
- ordered
- size of object is irrelevant
46
What does predictable development?
- Learn what "1" means > what "1 and 2" mean >
"1, 2 and 3" > after 3 (around 3.5) it starts to
make more sense and suddenly understand
everything
47
What does temperament mean?
- Can be thought as a baby's personality
- Early appearing and strong genetic component
48
What is stranger anxiety?
End of first year (8-9 months) > Children become picky and do not want to be with anyone besides primary caregiver, can
also extend to other caregivers
49
Thomas & Chess's 3 Major styles
- Easy = 40%
- Difficult = 10%
- Slow-to-warm up = 15%
- Others = 35%
50
Thomas & Chess's Easy Temperament
- Did not react negatively to new things in
environment
- Generally happy and easy going,
showed high levels of rhythmicity
51
Thomas & Chess's Difficult Temperament
- High levels of distress when introduced to
something new (e.g. held by someone other than
primary caregiver, vacuum turning on)
52
Thomas & Chess's Slow-to-warm up Temperament
- Similar to difficult babies negative reactions to
novelty
- Level of distress not as intense as difficult babies
53
Thomas & Chess's other temperament
- did not fall neatly into temperament styles
54
Kagan et al's temperament styles
- behavioural inhibited = 10%
55
What does behaviourally inhibited mean?
- Emotional reactions categorized by fear
- Heightened/increased risk for shyness and anxiety disorders
later in life
56
What does behaviourally uninhibited mean?
- Approx. 20% = could possible
lead to impulsive behaviours
57
What is attachment?
- Emotional connection shared amongst people who are close
58
What was Konrad Lorenze's theory?
Gosling's "imprinting" behaviour in relation to human = Sensitive period and importance of early experience
59
Harlow's Rhesus monkey study methods
- monkeys taken away from mothers after birth and given a "wire mother" who provided food and "cloth mother"
- which one do monkey's spend more time with?
60
Harlow's Rhesus monkey study findings
The babies spent almost all their time clinging to cloth mother
- Reassuring physical contact = huge attachment developmental role
61
Secure Attachment style
- 60%
- Display distress when caregiver leaves (separation anxiety)
- When caregiver returns, the baby is easily
soothed
62
Insecure-avoidant Attachment style
- 15-20%
- Do not seem to display a high outward
negative
- Do not necessarily reach out for comfort from
caregiver when they return
63
Insecure Attachment style
-15-20%
- React extremely negatively when caregiver
leaves
- Seek comfort don't calm
down as quickly, almost seem mad at caregiver
64
Disorganized attachment style
- 5-10%
- Usually only seen in babies who have
disruption in caregiving (abuse or neglect)
- Babies don't react consistently, show atypical
behaviour (freezing)
65
Mary Ainsworth's study design
Strange Situation (repeated and brief
separations from caregiver + interaction with stranger) - gold
standard to assess attachment in infants
66
Physiological vs outward behaviour for avoidant and anxious styles
Physiologically (heart rate or cortisol) show the same level of stress and more than a secure attachment
67
Cultural differences between attachment styles
- NA = Most babies fall into secure attachment
- German babies show insecure avoidant
- Japanese babies show insecure-anxious attachment
68
Life outcomes associated with attachment styles
Securely attached babies = well adjusted, helpful and empathic
behaviour in kids (prosocial behaviour)
69
Attachment styles reliability
- Attachment styles may change over time
- Different styles shown for different caregivers
70
Types of parenting styles
- Permissive
- Authoritarian
- Authoritative
- Uninvolved
71
Parenting style dimensions
- Warm and loving (high or low)
- Rules-based vs discipline focused
71
Permissive Parenting
- Tend to be lenient
-Very affectionate
72
Authoritarian parenting styles
- Strict and low affection
- High rules
73
Uninvolved parenting style
- Low on both dimensions
- Neglectful and ignoring
74
Authoritative parenting style
- High on both dimensions
- Supportive but set clear/firm limits
75
When does parenting matter more?
- Negative parenting (abusive and neglectful)
-
76
Average expectable environment
As long as parenting does not deviate severely from culture norm your kids will turn out fine
77
Dandelion vs Orchid Children
- Dandelion - kids do well no matter which
environment they're put in
- Orchid - thrive in the right environment; sensitive to environmental impacts
78
How do kids learn right from wrong?
- Acting right/morally = reward
- Acting wrong/immorally = punishment > fear of punishment is internalized
79
Piaget's 2 Stages of moral understanding
- Objective - how much harm is done
- Subjective - intention to cause harm
- Early childhood = lean towards objective and later reason by
subjective
80
Kholberg's stages of moral development
- Pre-conventional
- Conventional
- Post-conventional
81
Pre-conventional stage of moral development
Focus = punishment and reward
"No, shouldn't do it" > if found out there will be punishment
82
Conventional stage of moral development
"No, shouldn't do it" > stealing is wrong, against the law
83
Post-conventional stage of moral development
"Yes, should do it" > preservation of life is more important than money; immoral for druggist
84
Criticism for Kolhberg's stages
- Cultural bias > biased towards Western orientation
- Gender bias in scoring
- Low correlation with actual moral behaviour
- Confounded with verbal intelligence - verbal expression
- Causal direction (reasoning and behaviour differ based on how people feel)
