HUMAN PERFORMANCE (Human information processing)

Question 1

While carefully monitoring the instruments during flight, the flight deck crew is in a state of (1) ___, while a failure indication may draw the crew’s (2) ___ to the problem.

(1) vigilance, (2) arousal.
(1) arousal, (2) vigilance.
(1) vigilance, (2) attention.
(1) attention, (2) vigilance.

Answer 1

(1) vigilance, (2) attention.

Question 2

Two types of attention are…

selective and divided.
permanent and intuitive.
divided and behavioural.
connective and selective.

Answer 2

selective and divided.

Question 3

“Selective attention” can be described as:

Handling different information all at the same time.
Open-mindedness for inputs from different aspects.
One of different phases of attention controlled by the circadien cycle.
Paying attention to specific information while disregarding others.

Answer 3

Paying attention to specific information while disregarding others.

Question 4

The cognitive resources in the human brain…

• are not limited and make it easy to perform multiple attentional tasks at the same time.
• are limited and make it impossible to perform two attentional tasks at the same time.
• are limited for some people only, but are virtually unlimited for healthy adults.
• are so limited that even the easiest task can hardly be done with reasonable attention.

Answer 4

• are limited and make it impossible to perform two attentional tasks at the same time.

Question 5

During cruise on a night flight with low workload, it is recommended that…

the lighting in the cockpit be increased in order to prevent low vigilance.
only vital instruments be lit in order to concentrate one’s attention.
all sources of light in the cockpit be turned off in order to enable a good rest.
the lighting in the cockpit be dimmed in order to reduce fatigue of the eyes.

Answer 5

the lighting in the cockpit be increased in order to prevent low vigilance.

Question 6

Which of the listed items are danger signs that indicate a loss of vigilance?

1. Increase in selective attention
2. Decrease in sensory perception
3. Sensation of muscular heaviness
4. Decrease in complacency

2 and 3
1 and 4
1 and 3
2 and 4

Answer 6

2 and 3

Question 7

With regard to signs of reduced vigilance (hypovigilance), being in a state of reduced vigilance can be indicated by:

1. Crew member silent for some minutes
2. Staring at the instruments without moving
3. Looking at the instruments without noticing the indications
4. Omitting checklist items in emergency situations

1, 2 and 3.
2, 3 and 4.
2 and 4.
1, 2, 3 and 4.

Answer 7

1, 2 and 3.

Question 8

Which of the given tasks can be done simultaneously without compromising either task?

Maintain manual straight and level flight and solve a problem.
Read a book or a manual and listen attentively to a person.
Listen attentively to a person and solve a problem.
Talk to somebody and rehearse a frequency in working memory.

Answer 8

Maintain manual straight and level flight and solve a problem.

Question 9

A pilot has difficulties in controlling the aircraft and therefore misses to monitor the fuel indication.

This is caused by…

a feeling of indifference.
a lack of knowledge about fuel.
a lack of alertness.
a lack of attention due to distraction.

Answer 9

a lack of attention due to distraction.

Question 10

With regard to cognitive psychology, factors influencing a person’s level of attention include:

1. Environmental
2. Physiological
3. Psychological
4. Neurological
5. Task factors

1, 2, 4 and 5
1, 2 and 3
1, 2 and 5
2, 3, 4 and 5

Answer 10

1, 2 and 5

Question 11

What is our mental model of the world based on?

on both our past experiences and the sensory information we receive.
neither on experiences nor sensory information, only on our self-esteem.
only on our past experiences, but not on sensory information we receive.
only on the sensory information we receive, but not on past experiences.

Answer 11

on both our past experiences and the sensory information we receive.

Question 12

Referreing to pilot’s perception, describe the “top-down” process:

• Comparing data stored in the brain with the new precepted ones, possibly adding missing data.
• A data controlling process for protecting the brain from adding and safing irrelevant data.
• Comparing data stored in the brain with the new precepted ones, critically disguishing inconsistent details.
• A process for gathering data and distributing it to different parts of the brain.

Answer 12

• Comparing data stored in the brain with the new precepted ones, possibly adding missing data.

Question 13

What is the first stage in the information process?

Sensory stimulation.
Selective attention
Shared information.
Active thinking.

Answer 13

Sensory stimulation.

Question 14

A very dangerous characteristic of perception is that it…

only occurs under conditions of stress.
is extremely resistant to correction.
occurs under conditions of relaxation.
can easily be changed in an individual.

Answer 14

is extremely resistant to correction.

Question 15

A pilot has an apparently correct explanation for the problem in an abnormal situation.
The chance to now ignore or devalue other information not fitting into the pilot’s mental picture is…

not unusual.
very little for captains.
very little.
impossible for professionals.

Answer 15

not unusual.

Question 16

Name one of the perceptual illusions, which has a high impact on pilots:

Temporal illusion
Optical illusion
Coriolis illusion
Tactile illusion

Answer 16

Optical illusion

Question 17

The most critical types of perceptual illusions include:

1. Visual illusion
2. Kinaesthetic illusion
3. Auditory illusion
4. Vestibular illusion
5. Geometric illusion
6. Neurological illusion

1, 2 and 3.
4, 5 and 6.
2, 5 and 6.
1, 3 and 5.

Answer 17

1, 2 and 3.

Question 18

Incorrect perception…

will never affect pilots.
can be highly persuasive.
can be recognised easily.
will only affect cabin crew.

Answer 18

can be highly persuasive.

Question 19

What can be meant by the term “spatial disorientation”?

• Situation that can be avoided by flying under Instrument Flight Rules.
• Sitation that may arise when flying with reference instruments.
• Loss of orientation when flying in poor visibility situations.
• An incorrect perception of one’s position and motion relative to the Earth.

Answer 19

An incorrect perception of one’s position and motion relative to the Earth.

Question 20

In human short-term memory, information is stored for approximately…

90 seconds.
20 seconds.
24 hours.
30 minutes.

Answer 20

20 seconds.

Question 21

Information received from the sensory organs is lost…

• if you choose to store the information in one of the sensory memories (e.g. iconic or echoic memories).
• within 10 - 20 seconds unless it is rehearsed and deliberately placed in the long-term memory.
• within 45 - 60 minutes unless it is rehearsed and deliberately placed in the long-term memory.
• only if you suffer from a disease affecting the brain, but automatically stored for healthy persons.

Answer 21

• within 10 - 20 seconds unless it is rehearsed and deliberately placed in the long-term memory.

Question 22

The main limits of short-term memory include:

1. very sensitive to interruptions and interference
2. difficult to access
3. limited in size
4. prone to lose information within approximately 20 seconds unless it is actively or deliberately placed into the long-term memory

2, 3 and 4
1, 2 and 4
1, 2 and 3
1, 3 and 4

Answer 22

1, 3 and 4

Question 23

The main limitation for the long-term memory is…

• that if too much information is entered at a time, saturation may take place quickly.
• that the space for storage of new data is limited to certain parts of the brain only.
• that the space is very limited and therefore storage of new data is very difficult.
• that unless information is accessed from time to time, its retrieval can be difficult.

Answer 23

• that unless information is accessed from time to time, its retrieval can be difficult.

Question 24

Which statement is correct about long-term memory (LTM)?

• Recent events can be stored in the semantic memory instead of the episodic memory.
• Facts can be stored in the episodic memory instead of the semantic memory when correctly learned.
• Any item can be recalled from the LTM with ease, irrespective of regularity of recall.
• Unless an item is recalled regularly, it becomes more difficult to retrieve from the LTM store.

Answer 24

• Unless an item is recalled regularly, it becomes more difficult to retrieve from the LTM store.

Question 25

Which of the following factors is true for short-term memory? It is unlimited in time and size. It is unlimited in time and limited in size. It is limited in time and size. It is unlimited in size and limited in time.

Answer 25

It is limited in time and size.

Question 26

In case of a failure indication on the engine panel, state in which order the brain stores and processes information from the instruments: 1. Visual image of abnormal values stored in sensory store (1 second) 2. Attention consciously focused on indications 3. Looking at the gauges 3, 1 then 2. 1, 2 then 3. 3, 2 then 1. 1, 3 then 2.

Answer 26

1, 3 then 2.

Question 27

The maximum number of unrelated items that humans can store in their working memory is... not limited. 2-3 items. about 25 items. 5 items (plus/minus 2).

Answer 27

5 items (plus/minus 2).

Question 28

After interrupting the captain for a sound reason, a co-pilot should... - brief the captain in detail about changes that occured in the meantime. - repeat the interruption to focus the captain's attention. - politely apologise for interrupting him/her in his/her work. - remind him/her of his/her last action before the interruption.

Answer 28

- remind him/her of his/her last action before the interruption.

Question 29

Working memory... is unlimited in duration and is insensitive to interruptions. varies considerably in size between experienced pilots and novice pilots. is sensitive to interruptions, which may erase all or some of its contents. is another word for long-term memory, which is unlimited in size.

Answer 29

is sensitive to interruptions, which may erase all or some of its contents.

Question 30

Working memory is... sensitive to interruptions and limited in size. insensitive to interruptions and unlimited in size. insensitive to interruptions and limited in size. sensitive to interruptions and unlimited in size.

Answer 30

sensitive to interruptions and limited in size.

Question 31

Which statement is correct? Short-term memory is affected by interruptions. Motivation does not affect an individual's performance. Motivation is always beneficial, stress is always negative. Short-term memory stores information for one week.

Answer 31

Short-term memory is affected by interruptions.

Question 32

Which of the following statements correctly defines "semantic memory"? - It is the meaning of words and general knowledge of the world; it lasts for a shorter period of time than episodic memory and tends to be less accurate. - It is the memory of events; it lasts for a longer period of time than episodic memory and tends to be more accurate. - It is the meaning of words and general knowledge of the world; it lasts for a longer period of time than episodic memory and tends to be more accurate. - It is the memory of events; it lasts for a shorter period of time than episodic memory and tends to be less accurate.

Answer 32

- It is the meaning of words and general knowledge of the world; it lasts for a longer period of time than episodic memory and tends to be more accurate.

Question 33

Which of the statements below is correct about long-term memory? - Information is stored in the Semantic, Episodic and Procedural memories. - Long-term memory is more limited in capacity than short-term memory. - Information is stored in the Phonological, Connective and Visual memories. - Long-term memory is just another word for "working memory".

Answer 33

Information is stored in the Semantic, Episodic and Procedural memories.

Question 34

With regard to Long Term Memory, which of the following statements is correct? 1. It is limited to approximately 5 plus/minus two items of information 2. "Motor programmes (skills)" are kept in Long Term Memory. 3. It is also known as the "Working Memory" 4. It is affected by suggestion and expectation. 1 and 3. 2, 3 and 4. 2 and 4. 1, 2 and 3.

Answer 34

2 and 4.

Question 35

The term "learning" means... enlarging the capacity of the brain. gaining knowledge through study and past experience. calculating risks while considering previous experience. the capability of humans to process information.

Answer 35

gaining knowledge through study and past experience.

Question 36

Regarding forms of learning, what is meant by the term modelling? Using a familiar solution for a problem. Testing new solutions for a routine task. Completing a task by imitation. Using trial and error to complete a task.

Answer 36

Completing a task by imitation.

Question 37

For which pilots may mental rehearsal be helpful to improve their flying skills? For pilots at all levels of flying proficiency. Only for pilots with little flying experience. For first officers but not for captains. For student pilots but not instructors.

Answer 37

For pilots at all levels of flying proficiency.

Question 38

The quality of learning... is promoted by feedback on one's own performance. is generally better for experienced professionals. is dependent on one's age and professional role. is not affected by feedback one's own performance.

Answer 38

is promoted by feedback on one's own performance.

Question 39

Mnemonics are used by aviation professionals because they... help to increase retention of information. are mandatory to get a licence. increase motivation for exams. are an effective tool for avoiding illusions.

Answer 39

help to increase retention of information.

Question 40

Planning... - allows crew members to anticipate potential risky situations and decide on possible responses. - is dangerous in the cockpit, as it interrupts flight crew creativity. - results in plans that are easy to modify in unanticipated situations. - is not necessary for highly trained crew members who will always know what to do in unusual situations.

Answer 40

- allows crew members to anticipate potential risky situations and decide on possible responses.

Question 41

With respect to Anderson's model, the acquisition of a skill includes which three stages? Cognitive, associative and knowledge. Autonomous, connective and master. Cognitive, associative and autonomous. Connective, autonomous and expert.

Answer 41

Cognitive, associative and autonomous.

Question 42

An experienced pilot... - prepares thoroughly for a flight and is able to anticipate the majority of possible problems. - is not able to anticipate possible problems any better than a totally inexperienced pilot. - is not required to prepare for a flight, as experience makes preparation unnecessary. - should not use automated systems as his/her experience allows him/her to perform all tasks manually.

Answer 42

- prepares thoroughly for a flight and is able to anticipate the majority of possible problems.

Question 43

Acquiring a motor programme (skill) will mean that the... - less behaviour is automated, the less it requires conscious attention and thus the less it frees mental resources. - more behaviour is automated, the more it requires conscious attention and thus the less it frees mental resources. - more behaviour is automated, the less it requires conscious attention and thus the more it frees mental resources. - less behaviour is automated, the more it requires conscious attention and thus the more it frees mental resources.

Answer 43

- more behaviour is automated, the less it requires conscious attention and thus the more it frees mental resources.

Question 44

With respect to completing a task, a "motor programme" is a behavioural sub-routine which... requires conscious thought throughout the routine. is of no use for professionals in aviation. once running does not require conscious thought. does not require conscious thought at any time.

Answer 44

once running does not require conscious thought.

Question 45

An advantage of using mental schemata when performing a familiar, but rather complex task, is: It allows to base current actions on past experience. It allows to base actions items on short-term memory items. Expectations can be driven by current perceptions. It focuses attention to precisely defined areas.

Answer 45

It allows to base current actions on past experience.

Question 46

The model of skill-based, rule-based and knowledge-based behaviour (Jens Rasmussen) is associated with... problem-solving. calculating risks. flying skills. intelligence.

Answer 46

problem-solving.

Question 47

The choice of the moment for the selection of flaps prior to landing is... skill and/or rule-based behaviour. always automatic behaviour. knowledge-based behaviour. usually random behaviour.

Answer 47

skill and/or rule-based behaviour.

Question 48

When flying a coordinated turn, your activity is mostly... knowledge-based behaviour. automatic behaviour. skill-based behaviour. rule-based behaviour.

Answer 48

skill-based behaviour.

Question 49

In problem-solving, what would be the reason for a change from rule-based to knowledge-based activities? A forced change in attitude towards rules and knowledge. The knowledge of rules that apply to the problem posed. The unsuitability of the known rules for the problem posed. Refusal of a laissez-faire captain to respect certain rules.

Answer 49

The unsuitability of the known rules for the problem posed.

Question 50

The effects that experience and repetition have on performance... can both be beneficial and negative. are negligible. are always beneficial. are always negative.

Answer 50

can both be beneficial and negative.

Question 51

What is the effect of motivation on an individual completing a task? - Motivation will affect the time taken by an individual to complete a task but will not affect the result. - Motivation reflects the difference between what an individual can do and what the individual will do. - Motivation always narrows attention and therefore influences the completion of tasks in a negative way. - Motivation is considered to have no influence on the performance of an individual.

Answer 51

- Motivation reflects the difference between what an individual can do and what the individual will do.

Question 52

Which of the statements below is correct with regards to motivation? - The higher an individual's motivation, the better their performance. - Motivation reduces the susceptibility to somatogravic illusion. - A high degree of motivation can always make up for insufficient knowledge. - Excessive motivation leads to stress, which adversely affects performance.

Answer 52

- Excessive motivation leads to stress, which adversely affects performance.

Question 53

During the cruise flight on a VFR flight in good weather conditions, a pilot realises that they has just looked at the panel during instrument crosscheck without actively reading or perceiving the indications. This is an example of… hypovigilence. spatial disorientation. laissez-faire. vertigo.

Answer 53

hypovigilence.

Question 54

During a company's winter operations course a pilot received information about the temperature they have to be aware in regard to airframe icing. One week after this course the pilot is on a flight through bad weather and tries to remember the exact temperature. To save and recall this information which type(s) of memories were involved? - All memory types as initially the information is perceived within the sensory memory, then transferred to the short-term memory where it is evaluated after which it is moved to the long-term memory - Sensory memory and long-term memory only as the value is initially perceived and evaluated in the sensory memory during training course and then transferred directly into long-term memory - Short-term memory was involved only as all other types of memory last for several days - Long-term memory only as all other types of memory last for a few minutes only

Answer 54

- All memory types as initially the information is perceived within the sensory memory, then transferred to the short-term memory where it is evaluated after which it is moved to the long-term memory

Question 55

State the differences between Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term-Memory (LTM). STM has less capacity and retains information shorter than LTM LTM is less difficult to access than STM LTM is unlimited in size and is easier to access than STM LTM has less capacity and is less readily available than STM

Answer 55

STM has less capacity and retains information shorter than LTM

Question 56

An aircraft has joined the circuit and is on final approach. Code 4512 is set on the transponder and the QNH of 994 is set on the altimeter. ATC calls with the following message: "G-ADBF cleared to land runway 05L, wind 080 degrees 4 knots". What information is the pilot likely to be holding in the working memory at this point? The QNH value (994) that is set into the altimeter The direction (080 degrees) and speed (4 knots) of the wind vector The 4 digit code assigned by ATC and set into the transponder (4512) The radio frequency of the Control Tower

Answer 56

The direction (080 degrees) and speed (4 knots) of the wind vector

Question 57

A pilot should keep ____ in his/her working memory. - the transponder code for radio communication failure and unlawful interference - the last transponder code provided by ATC until it has been set on the transponder - the last transponder code provided by ATC even after it has been set on the transponder - the emergency transponder code during approach or take-off

Answer 57

- the last transponder code provided by ATC until it has been set on the transponder

Question 58

When performing a familiar but rather complex task, using a mental schema may cause what disadvantage? Mental schema may produce sensory illusions Mental schema may encourage rigid ways of thinking Mental schema cannot follow complex procedures Mental schema can only produce actions based on current information

Answer 58

Mental schema may encourage rigid ways of thinking

Question 59

While in cruise, the flight crew receives terrain proximity caution sounds in the cockpit. The pilot believes that the auditory alert is associated with a configuration warning but has misidentified the warning and furthermore applies the wrong procedures. What behavioural error can this be associated with? Knowledge-based behaviour Procedure-based behaviour Skill-based behaviour Rule-based behaviour

Answer 59

Rule-based behaviour