Important Theories

Question 1

Functionalism

Answer 1

• The study of the structure and function of each part of society
• Theorists used the term function to refer to the beneficial consequence’s of peoples actions. According to these theorists, functions help keep society in balance. In contrast, dysfunctions are harmful consequences of peoples actions as they undermine a social systems equilibrium.
• Functions can be either manifest or latent:
  
  • Manifest functions are deliberate actions that serve to help a given system.
  • Latent functions are unexpected, unintended, or unrecognized positive consequences

Question 2

Discrimination

Answer 2

• Viewed as behavioral. Refers to differences in actions toward different groups.
• Occurs when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others.
• Typically a negative behavior. Prejudice does not always result in discrimination. For instance, a person might have strong feelings against a particular race (prejudice), but may not express those feelings or act on them.
• The unequal distribution of power, prestige, and class influence discrimination.

Question 3

Prejudice

Answer 3

• Viewed as affective. Reflects the overall attitude and emotional response to a group.
• Defined as an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity.
• Can form in response to dissimilarities among groups, races, ethnicities, or even environments.
• While racial and ethnic prejudices against individuals are at the forefront of most people’s minds, prejudices exist against objects and places as well. For instance, people have attitudes toward different regions of the country based on culture, weather, history, etc.

Question 4

Disorders and Causes

Answer 4

• Schizophrenia: partially inherited. Associated with excess of dopamine.
• Depressive Disorders: Abnormally high glucose metabolism in amygdala, hippocampal atrophy, abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol), decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine.
• Bipolar Disorders: Increased norepinephrine and serotonin, higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder, higher risk for people with multiple sclerosis.
• Alzheimers: Distortions in the brain, reduction in levels of acetylcholine and choline acetyltransferase (producer of acetylcholine), B-amyloid plaques
• Parkinson’s: Decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra

Question 5

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Answer 5

1. Sensorimotor: [Birth – 2 yrs], focuses on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs through circular reactions, object permanence ends this stage.
2. Preoperational Stage: [2 – 7 yrs], symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration.
3. Concrete Operational Stage: [7 – 11 yrs], understands conservation and the feelings of others; can manipulate concrete objects logically
4. Formal Operational Stage: [11+], can think abstractly and problem solve

Question 6

3 Theories of Emotion

Answer 6

Theory

Stimulus

First Response

Second Response

James-Lange

Stimulus

Nervous system arousal

Conscious Emotion

Cannon-Bard

Stimulus

Nervous system arousal and conscious emotion

Action

Schachter-Singer

Stimulus

Nervous system arousal and cognitive appraisal

Conscious Emotion

Question 7

Freud: Psychosexual Development

Answer 7

1. Oral Stage: 0-1 year. Gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects into the mouth, biting, and sucking. Libidinal energy centered on the mouth. Fixation can lead to excessive dependency.
2. Anal Stage: 1-3 years. Toilet training occurs. Lipido centered on the anus. Fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or messiness.
3. Phallic Stage: 3-5 years. Centers on resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children or Electra conflict for female children. The child to a large extent de-eroticizes, or sublimates his libidinal energy.
4. Latency Stage: Once the libido is sublimated, the child has entered the stage called latency, which lasts until puberty is reached.
5. Genital Stage: Begins in puberty and lasts through adulthood. If previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into normal heterosexual relationships. However, if secual traumas of childhood have not been resolved, such behaviors as homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism may result.

Question 8

Erikson: Psychosocial Development Stages

Answer 8

1. Trust vs. Mistrust: [0-1 yr], Can I trust the world?
2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: [1-3 yrs], Is it okay to be me?
3. Initiative vs. Guilt: [3-6 yrs], Is it okay for me to do, move, and act? Sense of purpose vs. fear of punishment
4. Industry vs. Inferiority: [6-12 yrs], Can I make it in the world of people and things? Competency vs. Inadequacy
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion: [12-20 yrs], Who am I? What can I be? Integrated person vs. Confusion about identity
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation: [20-40 yrs], Can I love/form relationships?
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation: [40-65 yrs], Can I make my life count?
8. Integrity vs. Despair: [65-death], Is it okay to have been me? Wisdom vs. Feelings of bitterness about one’s life

Question 9

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Answer 9

1. Phase 1 - Preconventional Morality: Preadolescence.
   
   • Stage 1: Obedience - concerned with avoiding punishment
   • Stage 2: Self-Interest - about gaining rewards, often called the instrumental relativist stage because it is based on reciprocity and sharing
2. Phase 2 - Conventional Morality: Adolescence to Adulthood.
   
   • Stage 3: Conformity - places emphasis on the “good boy, nice girl” orientation in which a person seeks the approval of others.
   • Stage 4: Law and Order - maintains the social order in the highest regard.
3. Phase 3 - Postconventional Morality: Adulthood (if at all)
   
   • Stage 5: Social Contract - views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, focused on individual rights
   • Stage 6: Universal Human Ethics - reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles

Question 10

Freud: Id, Ego, and Superego

Answer 10

• Id: consists of all the basic, primal, in born urges to survive and reproduce. Functions according to the pleasure principle, in which the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve tension.
• Ego: operates according to the reality principle (postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained). Ego is the organizer of the mind - it receives its power from and can’t be fully independent of the id. Also responsible for moderating the desires of the superego.
• Superego: focused on the ideal self. The personality’s perfectionist, judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures.

Question 11

Commonly Tested Defense Mechanisms (8)

Answer 11

1. Repression: unconsciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness
   
   • Ex: A man who survived 6 months in a concentration camp cannot recall anything about his life during that time period
2. Suppression: consciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness
   
   • Ex: A terminally ill cancer patient puts aside his anxiety to enjoy a family gathering
3. Regression: returning to an earlier stage of development
   
   • A husband speaks to his wife in “baby talk” when telling her bad news
4. Reaction Formation: An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite
   
   • Ex: Two coworkers fight all the time because they are actually very attracted to each other
5. Projection: Attribution of wishes, desires, thoughts, or emotions to someone else
   
   • Ex: A man who has committed adultery is convinced his wife is cheating on him, despite a lack of evidence
6. Rationalization: justification of attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors
   
   • Ex: A murderer who claims that, while killing is wrong, his victim “deserved it”
7. Displacement: changing the target of an emotion, while the feelings remain the same
   
   • Ex: When sent to his room as a punishment, a child begins to punch and kick his pillow
8. Sublimation: channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction
   
   • Ex: A boss who is attracted to his employee becomes her mentor and advisor

Question 12

For each of the following perspectives, briefly describe how each would define personality.

Answer 12

• Psychoanalytic: Personality is the result of unconscious urges and desires
• Humanistic: Personality comes from conscious feelings about oneself resulting from healthy striving for self-realization
• Type: Personalities are sets of distinct qualities and dispositions into which people can be grouped
• Trait: Personalities are assembled from having different degrees of certain qualities and dispositions
• Behaviorist: Personality is the result of behavioral responses to stimuli based on prior rewards and punishments
• Social Cognitive: Personality comes from the interactions between an individual and his or her environment

Question 13

What are the roles of the id, ego, and superego?

Answer 13

• Id: the sum of our basic urges to reproduce and survive
• Superego: our sense of perfectionism and idealism
• Ego: mediates the anxieties caused by the actions of the id and superego by using defense mechanisms

Question 14

For each of the theoretical approaches listed, what is the primary thesis or idea of the theory?

Answer 14

• Functionalism: every part of society serves a function; when these functions work together correctly, society overall can function normally
• Conflict Theory: power differentials are created when groups compete for economic, social, and political resources; these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order
• Symbolic Interactionism: humans communicate through words, gestures, and other symbols to which we attach meaning
• Social Constructionism: individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a given social reality
• Rational Choice Theory: individuals will make decisions that maximize potential benefit and minimize potential harm