What is memory?
Memory:
- The ability to absorb, retain and recall information
- Process is known as encoding, storage and retrieval
- Can be short-term (STM) or long-term (LTM)
Name and describe the three types of memory
Ways of storing memory:
Declarative memories
- Facts and events
- Can be consciously recalled and “declared” or described
Procedural memories
- Memory of skills e.g. learning an instrument
- Knowing how to do things e.g. walking talking
Implicit memories
- Unconscious memories that still impact the individuals behaviour
What are the key features of long-term memory?
Key features LTM:
- Unlimited capacity
- Duration varies; can be anywhere from a few minutes to a lifetime
- Encoding can be semantic (meaning), visual (pictorial) or acoustic (sound)
What are the key features of short-term memory?
Key features STM:
- Limited duration; around 15-30 seconds (Atkinson and Shiffrin) unless information is rehearsed
- Limited capacity; around 7 items (Atkinson and Shiffrin)
- Encoding is primarily acoustic (sound)
What are the three types of encoding?
Encoding:
Semantic (meaning)
Visual (pictures)
Acoustic (sounds)
How does the biological approach study memory?
Biological approach to memory:
- Focusses on the physiology of memory in the brain
- Explains memory in terms of the synapses between neuronal being strengthened and the formation of new ones
- In particular the hippocampus is linked to LTM
- STM processing occurs in the neocortex in the frontal lobe
- Scoville and Milner (57) study of H.M, removal of the hippocampus resulted in loss of ability to form new memories.
- This approach is good at explaining the physiology of memory, which has given psychologists a better idea of how memories are formed
- This approach cant explain the processes of memory e.g. rehersal
Describe and date Scoville and Milner’s key study.
Scoville and Milner (1957):
- H.M’s hippocampus was removed in attempt to improve his severe epileptic condition
- He lost ability to form new memories
- His childhood memories and most of his memories prior to the operation remained in tact
- His procedural memory was unaffected; he could carry out the same task, improving every time, however could not recall his previous attempts
How does the cognitive approach study memory?
Cognitive approach to memory:
- Use of the computer analogy; LTM is compared to a hard drive. The brain processes information and recalls it when needed in the same way a computer does
- Long-term memories are based on schemas, with similar memories being stored together
- Studies suggest that memories are influenced by already existing schemas e.g. recall of an office being influenced by the schema of a student office that had been seen earlier
- A flaw of the computer analogy is it cant explain why memories can be influenced by schemas, as this would not happen in a computer process
- The computer analogy also cant explain how capacity is limited
- The schema influence has been backed by studies and is much more realistic than the computer analogy
How does the psychoanalytic approach study memory?
Psychoanalytic approach to memory:
- Relationship between the conscious and unconscious mind
- Memory is a conscious process controlled by the ego
- Information that may be harmful or disturbing can be repressed to the unconscious
- Memories that can be brought into the conscious mind through dreams or therapy sit in the preconscious
- Repressed memories can still have an influence on behaviour, even though the individual is unaware of them they are not completely forgotten
- Studies show that words associated with positive memories are recalled much better than those associated with negative ones, however it has been argued this may not be due to repression, but due to the level of arousal
- The psychoanalytical view of memory is not supported by much evidence however it can be argued it is hard to recreate repressed feelings under laboratory conditions, in an ethical manner
Name and describe one theory of memory other than WMM
Multi-Store Model (68)
- Memory is a linear, one-way process:
- Starts with the stimulus (environmental input)
- Sensory memory (information from surroundings is held for a couple of seconds or less before being forgotten). Paying attention to this SM allows information to pass into the STM
- Short-term memory holds around 7 items for 15-30 seconds. This information can be moved into LTM through rehearsal. The more it is rehearsed, the more likely it is to move into LTM
- It is theorised that memories will last longer in LTM if they are maintained in STM for as long as possible
- MSM has been criticised for being too simplistic e.g. not explaining the function of the STM in everyday tasks such as writing, walking, talking etc.
Name and describe one theory of memory other than MSM of memory
Working Memory Model (74)
- A more complex version of MSM, which shows how the STM works actively to carry out tasks on a day-to-day basis
- Three main systems:
- The central executive is the attention system which controls the other two (later three) main slave systems and ensures they are running smoothly
- The visuospatial sketchpad processes visual tasks e.g. picturing walking through your house
- The phonological loop processes verbal tasks e.g. counting how many windows you have in your house (from memory) and later the process of understanding words was added to this part of the model
- The episodic buffer is a third slave system (which was later added to the model) with the purpose of combining the information from the other slave systems into an ‘episode’ which can be encoded into the LTM store
- This theory suggests that two tasks can be done at once but only if they use different slave systems
- Complex tasks require a lot of attention from the Central Executive and this slows the whole system
- This model is good at explaining how the memory is actively used, however has been criticised for lacking clarity in some areas e.g. how do we know the function and capacity of the central executive
Name and date two studies about memory
Studies of memory:
- Scoville and Milner (57) H.M
- Loftus and Palmer (74) EWT
What is eye witness testimony?
Eye witness testimony:
- The idea that someone who is at the event of an incident will be able to accurately recall information from the scene upon questioning
- Used by police and lawyers to obtain information from events
Which three factors could affect the accuracy of EWT?
Factors affecting EWT:
Misinformation effect
- Information becomes distorted/corrupted (as shown by Loftus and Palmer 1974)
Social pressure
- Witnesses can be pressured into making errors e.g. the traditional lineup of suspects can pressure the witness into choosing, even if the convict is not present
Emotion/Anxiety
- Suggested that high levels of stress can reduce memory performance. Lofter found that estimated duration of a crime could be up to 5x longer than the actual duration of the crime
Change blindness
- People often do not focus much on faces unless they appear unusual in some way
- Witnesses are more likely to recall the face of a man holding a spanner than a man holding a knife (demonstrates how reports of faces could be inaccurate if a weapon is involved in an incident)
Name, date and describe one study of EWT
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Aim: To test how memories can be corrupted by leading questions
Method:
- 45 student participants (5 experimental conditions)
- Showed a clip of car accidents to all participants
- Each condition asked “How fast were the cars going when they ______ each other?”
- The blank was filled with a different word for each condition e.g. “smashed into” or “hit”
- Groups receiving more dramatic words e.g. “smashed” estimated a higher speed than those who received less dramatic words like “hit”
- In order to find out if this was due to the wording of the question or the distortion of memory a second version was conducted
- A week after the same study had been repeated, participants were asked to return to the laboratory and asked if they had seen broken glass (there was no glass)
- More participants from the dramatic wording groups reported seeing glass than the less dramatic wording groups
- A control group (which received no lead questions) said reported seeing glass the least out of the groups
- This study may not reflect real life as participants are not under any severe stress that may influence behaviour in a real life incident
- Only students were used for this experiment meaning results are not representative of the wider population
