Issues And Debates

Question 1

What is universality ?

Answer 1

there are a range of psychological characteristics of human beings that can be applied to all of us despite differences in experiences and upbringing.

Question 2

what is gender bias

Answer 2

the term bias is used to suggest that a person’s views are distorted in some way, and in psychology there is evidence that gender is presented in a biased way.

this gender bias leads to differential treatment of males and females, based on stereotypes and not real differences

Question 3

Maccoby and Jacklin (2014)

Answer 3

The difficulty lies in distinguishing “real” from culturally created gender differences.
Evidence suggests that there are a small number of real gender differences, confirmed through cross-cultural studies.
In a review of the research on sex differences, Maccoby and Jacklin concluded that there were only four differences between boys and girls, including
1. Girls have greater verbal ability
2. Boys have greater visual and spatial abilities
3. Boys have greater arithmetical ability, a difference that only appears at adolescence
4. Girls are less aggressive than boys

Question 4

androcentrism

Answer 4

taking male thinking/behavior as normal, regarding female thinking/behavior as deviant, inferior, abnormal, ‘other’ when it is different.
In the past most psychologists were male, and the theories they produced tended to represent a male view of the world.

Hare-Mustin and Marcek (1988) argued for there being two types of gender bias: alpha and beta bias.

Question 5

Alpha bias

Answer 5

theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females

Question 6

evolutionary approach

Answer 6

has been criticised for its alpha bias. This is because this approach suggests that evolutionary processes in the development of the human species explain why men tend to be dominant, why women have a more parental investment in their offspring, and why men are more likely to commit adultery. However, society has changed considerably over recent years, and it is argued that the evolutionary perspective shouldn’t be used to justify gender differences.

Question 7

psychodynamic approach criticised for alpha bias

Answer 7

The psychodynamic approach has been criticised for alpha bias, as it exaggerates differences between men and women.
Freud believed biological differences (e.g. having or not having a penis) shape our psychological development – he said, “biology is destiny.”
In the phallic stage, Freud said girls feel inferior because they don’t have a penis.
They develop penis envy, which must be changed into a desire for a husband and children, or else it may lead to problems.
Freud also linked morality to the superego, formed by identifying with the same-sex parent.
Boys fear castration, so their superego becomes strong to avoid punishment
Girls have already “accepted” their lack of a penis, so Freud implied they may have a weaker moral sense
This has serious implications for how Freud viewed female development – as naturally inferior to males.

Question 8

Biomedical view and alpha bias

Answer 8

The biomedical view says mental illness is caused by things like chemical imbalances or brain malfunction.
This view is dominant in how we explain mental illness, like depression.
When explaining why twice as many women are diagnosed with depression, biomedical explanations often blame hormones — for example, by pointing to postnatal depression or PMS, which are linked to female hormone changes.
This can lead to alpha bias, because it exaggerates gender differences, suggesting women are more emotionally unstable due to biology.

Question 9

What is the biomedical view of mental illness ?

Answer 9

The biomedical approach sees behavioural and psychological abnormalities as the result of underlying biological problems or disorders.

Question 10

Beta bias

Answer 10

theories which have traditionally ignored or minimised sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from males can apply equally to females.

Question 11

Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development (Beta bias)

Answer 11

Kohlberg’s theory shows beta bias because it was based only on boys aged 10–16, yet the findings were applied to everyone. His morality of justice framework may not reflect how women reason morally. Gilligan (1982) argued that women tend to focus more on care and relationships, not abstract justice, so they may seem less morally developed using Kohlberg’s male-centred system. This means a real gender difference was overlooked, reducing the validity of his theory for explaining female moral development.

Question 12

Beta bias in psychological research

Answer 12

In most studies, both men and women take part — but researchers often don’t check for gender differences in the results.
If differences are found, they may be caused by unequal treatment, not real psychological differences.
Rosenthal (1966) found male researchers were nicer and more encouraging to female participants than to males.
He said this could mean men and women are not having the same experience in the experiment at all.

Question 13

Animal research in beta bias

Answer 13

biological research into the fight-or-flight response has often been carried out with male animals because they have less variation in hormones than females.
It was assumed that this would not be a problem as the fight-or-flight response would be the same for both. However, later stress research by Taylor et al. (2000) has challenged this view by providing evidence that females produce a tend-and-befriend response.
The beta-bias in the earlier animal studies meant that for a long time the stress response was not fully understood and a real difference was ignored.

Question 14

conclusion of beta bias in psychological research

Answer 14

we end up with a view of human nature that is supposed to apply to men and women alike, but in fact, has a male or androcentric bias.
Asch’s 1955 conformity studies involves all male participants as did many of the other conformity studies (Perrin and Spender, 1980).
It was therefore assumed that females would respond in the same way.

Question 15

Positive consequences of alpha bias

Answer 15

1. Has led to some theorists (Gilligan) to assert the worth and valuation ‘feminine qualities’.
2. Has led to healthy criticism of cultural values that praise certain ‘male qualities such as aggression and individualism as desirable, adaptive and universal.

Question 16

Negative consequences of alpha bias

Answer 16

1. Kitzinger (1998) said gender differences aren’t just scientific – they’re also political, because women should have the same rights as men.
   But exaggerating differences helps keep male power in place – e.g., women were excluded from universities, stereotyped (e.g., Bowlby), and oppressed.
2. Feminists argue that even when real gender differences are small or don’t exist, they are still used to justify male dominance.
   This keeps stereotypes and prejudice going.
3. Focusing on how men and women differ ignores how much women differ from each other.
   It wrongly assumes all women are the same.
4. Assumptions about a woman’s ability are often based on average male-female differences or sexist stereotypes.
   This lowers women’s self-esteem and makes them feel they need to change more than men (Tavris, 1993).

Question 17

Positive consequence of beta bias

Answer 17

Makes people see men and women as the same, which has led to equal treatment in legal terms and equal access to, e.g. education and employment.

Question 18

Negative consequences of beta bias

Answer 18

1. Draws attention away from the differences in power between men and women
2. Is considered as an egalitarian approach but it results in major misrepresentations of both genders.

Question 19

Gender bias in the research process

Answer 19

Institutional sexism- Although female psychology students outnumber male, at a senior teaching and research level in universities, men dominate. Men predominate at senior researcher level.

Research agenda follows male concerns, female concerns may be marginalised or ignored.

Question 20

Use of standardised procedures in research studies

Answer 20

Most experimental methodologies are based around standardised treatment of participants.
This assumes that men and women respond in the same ways to the experimental situation.
Women and men might respond differently to research situation.
Women and men might be treated differently by researchers.
Could create artificial differences or mask real ones

Question 21

Dissemination of research results through academic journals

Answer 21

Publishing bias towards positive results.
Research that finds gender differences more likely to get published than that which doesn’t.
Exaggerates the extent of gender differences.

Question 22

Reducing gender bias

Answer 22

Feminist psychology and equal rights laws have helped reduce gender bias in psychology.
They’ve also highlighted ignored topics like childcare, sexual abuse, and the dual burden of working women.
More female researchers like Ainsworth and Loftus have led to more recognition of women in psychology.

Question 23

Cornwell et al 2013

Answer 23

some psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance or value of women. Cornwell noted that females are better at learning, as they are more attentive and organised, thus emphasising both the value and the positive attributes of women.
As a result, this type of research helps to reduce or challenge gender stereotypes which is important in reducing gender bias.

Question 24

Worrell 1992

Answer 24

Worrell (1992) said to reduce gender bias, researchers should:
1. Use different methods to study women’s real-life experiences
2. Study women in their natural settings
3. Work with participants to explore what really matters to them
4. Use diverse samples – women of different ages, classes, sexualities, and ethnic backgrounds

Question 25

gender bias can work against males as well as females

Answer 25

Chodorow (1978) viewed women as more relational and caring. Another example is that women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression and given treatment than males. This may be because women are more likely to suffer from depression, or it could be that the diagnostic system may be biased towards finding depression among women. The expectation for males should be able to 'pull themselves together' is viewed as a masculine trait which may highlight an issue with the psychological diagnostic systems.

Question 26

What is culture

Answer 26

the values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour shared by a group of people.

Question 27

Smith and Bond (1988)

Answer 27

found that 66% of participants in European textbooks on social psychology were American, 32% European, and only 2% from the rest of the world. Western psychologists routinely generalise their findings from societies in small sections of the world like this onto people as a whole, but findings of psychological research conducted in one culture may not apply directly to another.

Question 28

What is culture bias

Answer 28

when all human behaviour is interpreted from only one cultural viewpoint

Question 29

Ethnocentrism

Answer 29

Ethnocentrism is when a researcher sees their own culture as the ‘norm’ and judges other cultures as abnormal or wrong. They often don’t realise that other cultures may have equally valid views or behaviours. Abnormality is defined differently across cultures. Fernando said African-Caribbean people in the UK are sometimes wrongly diagnosed as mentally ill, just because white psychiatrists don’t understand their culture. A universal theory should apply to all people, no matter their gender or culture – but to be truly fair, it must include real cultural differences.

Question 30

Ethnocentric research - Ainsworth Strange Situation

Answer 30

The Strange Situation was developed to assess attachment types, and many researchers assume that the Strange Situation has the same meaning for the infants from other cultures, as it does for American children. German children, on average, demonstrate a higher rate of insecure-avoidant behaviour. However, it is not the case that German mothers are more insensitive than American mothers. Instead, they value and encourage independent behaviour, and therefore their children react differently in the Strange Situation. The Strange Situation has been described as an imposed etic, where a technique or theory is developed in one culture and then imposed on another.

Question 31

Takahashi 1990

Answer 31

aimed to see whether the strange situation is a valid procedure for cultures other than the original. Takashi found no children in the avoidant-insecure stage, this could be explained in cultural terms as Japanese children are taught that such behavior is impolite and the would be actively discouraged from displaying it. Also because Japanese children experience much less separation, the SS was more than mildly stressful.

Question 32

Cultural relativism

Answer 32

suggests that behaviours and concepts can only be understood correctly from the perspective of their cultural context. Therefore, any study which draws its sample from only one cultural context (like American college students) and then generalises its findings to all people everywhere, is suspect.

Question 33

Sternberg (1985)

Answer 33

According to cultural relativism, the meaning of intelligence is different in every culture. Sternberg (1985) pointed out that coordination skills that may be essential to life in a preliterate society (e.g., those motor skills required for shooting a bow and arrow) may be mostly irrelevant to intelligent behaviour for most people in a literate and more "developed" society.

Question 34

Etic construct

Answer 34

behaviour that is thought to be universal across all cultural groups (i.e: smiling when happy).

Question 35

Emic

Answer 35

a behaviour that only applies to certain cultural groups.

Question 36

Berry 1969

Answer 36

stated that "Psychology takes an imposed etic approach because it argues that theories/concepts are universal despite research being conducted using emic constructs within a specific culture"

Question 37

evaluation of cultural bias - bias in research methods

Answer 37

Smith and Bond surveyed research in one European textbook on social psychology and found that 66% of the studies were American, 32% European and 2% from the rest of the world. A considerable amount of psychology is based on middle class academic young adults who are males. This suggests that there is almost an institutionalised cultural bias in psychology, as students would be learning about ‘universal’ behaviours that were demonstrated only in certain cultures.

Question 38

evaluation of cultural bias - consequences

Answer 38

Culturally biased research can have significant real-world effects by, for example, amplifying and validating damaging stereotypes. The US Army used an IQ test before WWI which was culturally biased toward the dominant white majority. Unsurprisingly, the test showed that African-Americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale and this had a negative effect on the attitudes of Americans toward this group of people, which highlights the negative impact that culturally biased research can have.

Question 39

evaluation of cultural bias - emic approach

Answer 39

research of European society from a European perspective is emic, and African society by African researchers in Africa is also emic. An emic approach is more likely to have ecological validity as the findings are less likely to be distorted or caused by a mismatch between the cultures of the researchers and the culture being investigated. This suggests that Culture bias can occur when a researcher assumes that an emic construct (behavior specific to a single culture) is actually an etc (behavior universal to all cultures).

Question 40

evaluation of cultural bias - worldwide psychology

Answer 40

Researchers are now able to travel more and therefore have a greater understanding of other cultures, alongside having increased opportunities to conduct cross-cultural research. Academics meet to discuss and share ideas at international conferences, which reduces ethnocentrism in Psychology through appreciating that behaviours found in one culture may not be the same as in others, as well as real differences being identified and valued.

Question 41

Determinism

Answer 41

The belief that behaviour is controlled by external or internal factors acting upon the individual and beyond their control. There are 3 types of determinism: biological, environmental and psychic.

Question 42

2 types of internal determinism

Answer 42

1. Biological (Internal) Determinism: Our biological systems, such as the nervous system, govern our behavior. For example, a high IQ may be related to the IGF2R gene (Chorney et al. 1998). 2. Psychic (Internal) Determinism: Freud believed childhood experiences and unconscious motivations governed behavior. Freud thought that free will was an illusion, because he felt that the causes of our behavior is unconscious and still predictable.

Question 43

Environmental determinism

Answer 43

The belief that behaviour is caused by previous experience through classical and operant conditioning. i.e. phobias are a result of conditioning, as demonstrated by Watson’s study on Little Albert and Skinner’s Box (operant conditioning determining the behaviour of lab rats). These are external forces, over which we have no control.

Question 44

Free will

Answer 44

Each individual has the power to make choices about their behaviour, without being determined by internal or external forces beyond their control. A common feature of the humanistic approach.

Question 45

Hard determinism

Answer 45

The view that all behaviour can be predicted, according to the action of internal and external forces beyond our control, and so there can be no free will. For example, behaviourism suggests that all behaviour is the product of classical and operant conditioning, the biological approach sees behaviour as the product of genes and neurochemistry, whilst social learning theory suggests that behaviour is the product of vicarious reinforcement and mediational processes.

Question 46

Soft determinism

Answer 46

A version of determinism that allows for some element of free will and suggests that all events, including human behaviour, has a cause. For example, the cognitive approach suggests that individuals can reason and make decisions within the limits of their cognitive system.

Question 47

Importance of scientific research

Answer 47

scientific research is based on the belief that all events have a cause. An independent variable is manipulated to have an effect on the dependent variable. Through repeating the research under controlled conditions (e.g. using a laboratory experiment) and performing statistical tests, a ‘cause and effect’ relationship can be established between two variables. This increases the scientific credibility of Psychology, through enabling the prediction and control of behaviour.

Question 48

evaluation of determinism - 100% genetic determinism is unlikely to be found for any behaviour.

Answer 48

Studies that compare monozygotic twins have found 80% similarity for intelligence and 40% for depression. This suggests that genes do not entirely determine behaviour and supports an interactionist standpoint. The fact that concordance rates for MZ twins are often higher than for siblings, despite both sharing 50% of genes, may be due to MZ twins being more likely to share the same environment.

Question 49

evaluation of determinism - Determinism simplifies human behaviour.

Answer 49

Determinism may oversimplify human behaviour. While it might work for animals, human actions are influenced by more complex factors like thoughts and emotions. For example, aggression isn’t just caused by hormones like adrenaline — cognitive processes and emotions also play a major role. This suggests that purely biological explanations miss important psychological influences.

Question 50

evaluation of determinism - A determinist position may be used for people to try and justify behaviours if they have committed a crime.

Answer 50

This would be undesirable as it excuses their behaviour. Therefore, a hard deterministic stance is not in line with the principles of the judicial system, which sees individuals as taking moral responsibility for their actions. Determinism has also led to treatment methods for mental disorders, such as depression through the control of serotonin by using SSRIs and SNRIs. However, this biological deterministic approach does not allow the use of other treatments which are not based on biological mechanisms, such as CBT.

Question 51

The humanistic approach

Answer 51

Humanistic psychologists argue that self-determinism is a necessary part of human behaviour. Rogers (1959) claimed that as long as an individual remains controlled by other people or other things they cannot take responsibility for their own behaviour and therefore cannot change it. Only when an individual takes self responsibility is personal growth or ‘self-actualisation’ possible. By taking such a stance, humanism has been praised as a positive approach, essentially seeing people as good and free to ‘better themselves’.

Question 52

Moral responsibility

Answer 52

The basis is that an individual is in charge of their own actions. The law states that children and those who are mentally ill do not have this responsibility but other than this, there is an assumption that normal adult behaviour is self determined.

Question 53

evaluation of determinism - Does not account for individual differences.

Answer 53

By creating general laws of behavior, deterministic psychology underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny.

Question 54

evaluation of free will - illusion of free will

Answer 54

A person may choose to do something but these choices are determined by previous reinforcement contingencies, as suggested by the behaviourist approach. This is a hard deterministic stance.

Question 55

evaluation of free will - challenge to the idea of free will

Answer 55

Benjamin Libet et al (1983) recorded activity in motor areas of the brain before the person had a conscious awareness to move their finger. Chun Soon et al (2008) found activity in the prefrontal cortex up to 10 seconds before a person was aware of their decision to act. This suggests that the motor activity preceding movement occurred before the conscious decision was made, and so implies that all behaviour is pre-determined by up to 10 seconds.

Question 56

evaluation of free will - free will has good face validity

Answer 56

In everyday scenarios, we appear to be making our own decisions. Therefore, the idea of free will has good face validity because we appear to have free will in our day to day lives.

Question 57

evaluation of free will - high internal validity

Answer 57

Robert et al. found that adolescents with an internal locus of control (an individual’s idea of what controls events in their lives) are less likely to develop depression and are more likely to have better mental health, compared to those with an external locus of control. These differences in LOC and mental health states supports the idea that free will can be used to help us determine what controls our life events, and so we make such conscious decisions.

Question 58

environment

Answer 58

Everything that is outside our body, including people, events and the physical world. Any influence on behaviour which is non-genetic. Lerner identified different ‘levels’ of the environment, which ranged from pre-natal experiences (e.g. the mother’s physiological and psychological state during preganancy) to post-natal experiences (e.g. the socio-historical context within which the child grew up in).

Question 59

Nature

Answer 59

Any influence on behaviour which is genetic e.g. the action of genes, neurochemistry, neurotransmitters and neurological structures.

Question 60

Heredity

Answer 60

The process by which traits are passed from parents to their offspring, usually referring to genetic inheritance.

Question 61

Nativists

Answer 61

Rene Descartes : believe human characteristics are innate

Question 62

Heritability coefficiennt

Answer 62

numerical figure ranging from 0 - 1.0, which indicates the extent a characteristic has a genetic basis. 1.0 meaning entirely genetic - 0.5 generally for IQ (Plomin 1994)

Question 63

Empiricists

Answer 63

John Locke : believed mind is a blank slate at birth, upon which learning and experience writes

Question 64

Interactionist approach

Answer 64

With reference to the nature-nurture debate, this is the view that the processes of nature and nurture work together rather than in opposition. They are linked in such a way that it does not make sense to separate the influences of the two.

Question 65

Nature / nurture debate

Answer 65

The argument as to whether a person’s development is mainly due to their genes or to environmental influences. Most researchers accept that behaviour is a product of the interaction between nature and nurture.

Question 66

Diathesis stress model

Answer 66

suggests that psychopathology is caused by a biological/genetic vulnerability (diathesis), which is only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental trigger (the stressor).

Question 67

Genetic explanations (nature)

Answer 67

The more closely related two individuals are, the more likely that they will develop the same behaviours. The concordance rate for a mental disorder such as schizophrenia is 40% for MZ twins and 7% for DZ twins. This illustrates how nature plays a part in contribution to the disorder. However, concordance rates for MZ twins are not 100%, despite being genetically identical. This suggests that nurture and the environment also plays a significant role in development.

Question 68

Evolutionary explanations (nature)

Answer 68

Evolutionary explanations say that behaviours helping us survive are naturally selected — like avoiding fire or deep water. These behaviours are adaptive because they increase chances of survival and reproduction. Bowlby argued that attachment is adaptive too. Babies show social releasers (like crying or smiling) to trigger caregiving. Through interactions like reciprocity and interactional synchrony, infants stay close to caregivers, making survival (and later reproduction) more likely.

Question 69

Behaviourism (nurture)

Answer 69

Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be explained in terms of experience alone. Skinner used the concepts of classical and operant conditioning to explain learning and suggests that attachment could be explained in terms of classical conditioning where the food reduces the discomfort of hunger (negative reinforcement) and is therefore rewarding.

Question 70

SLT (nurture)

Answer 70

Bandura proposed that behaviour is acquired indirectly through operant and classical conditioning but also by directly through vicarious reinforcement. He acknowledged that biology had a role to play e.g. the urge to act aggressively could be biological but the way a person learns to express anger is through environmental influences (such as through observing and imitating the methods of expression of anger displayed by the identified role models).

Question 71

Double blind theory SZ (nurture)

Answer 71

(Bateson et al, 1956) suggests that schizophrenia develops in children who frequently receive contradictory messages from parents and these conflicting messages prevents the child from developing an internal consistent construction of reality. This is because when the child behaves incorrectly, they are punished by a withdrawal of love from their parents, leading them to believe that the world is dangerous (reflected in paranoid delusions) and confusing (reflected in disorganized thinking).

Question 72

evaluation of nature nurture debate - diathesis stress model

Answer 72

The diathesis-stress model shows how both nature (genes) and nurture (environment) work together. A diathesis is a genetic vulnerability, but a disorder only develops if triggered by environmental stress. Tienari et al. (2004) studied 303 Finnish adoptees — some had biological mothers with schizophrenia (high risk), others didn’t (low risk). After 12 years, 14 developed schizophrenia — 11 were from the high-risk group. Importantly, those with genetic risk only developed schizophrenia if raised in a negative family environment (e.g. high tension, low empathy). This shows that genes alone aren't enough — environmental factors play a key role, supporting an interactionist approach to explaining behaviour.

Question 73

evaluation of nature nurture debate - nurture affects nature

Answer 73

Maguire et al study of london taxi drivers showed that the region of their brains with spatial memory was bigger than in controls, this is because the hippocampi had responded this way. Maguire et al. studied the brains of London taxi drivers and found a larger grey matter volume in the mid-posterior hippocampus, an area of the brain associated with spatial awareness (skills needed for taxi drivers when they are learning and completing ‘The Knowledge’ exam). There was a positive correlation between increasingly pronounced changes and an increasing length of time that individuals had been taxi drivers. This demonstrates the interactionist nature of empiricism and nativism, and gives further reason as to why the influences of the two cannot be separated.

Question 74

evaluation of nature nurture debate - epigenetics

Answer 74

Refers to the material in each cell that acts like a switch to turn genes on or off e.g. DNA methylation and histone tail modification. Life experiences control these switches and these switches are passed on when the DNA is replicated semi- conservatively. This is why MZ twins may differ in weight even though they were given the same diets, due to differences in upbringing/experiences causing differences in the individual expression of genes. For example, Caspi et al (2002) assessed antisocial behaviour in 1000 participants between birth and the age of 26. The researchers found that 12% of men with less MAOA gene expression had experienced maltreatment when they were babies but were responsible for 44% of crimes. This brings a third element into the nature-nurture debate: the experiences of previous generations

Question 75

evaluation of nature nurture debate - constructivism

Answer 75

Plomin suggested that an individual’s ‘nature’ would determine their ‘nurture’ through niche-picking or niche-building. For example, a naturally aggressive child would be more likely to play with and befriend other aggressive children. This in turn would increase the aggressiveness of the child. Therefore, the idea of constructivism further emphasises the multi-layered relationship between nature and nurture.

Question 76

holism

Answer 76

any approach that emphasizes the whole rather than their constituent parts.

Question 77

Gestalt psychology

Answer 77

argues that behavior cannot be understood in terms of the components that make them up. This is commonly described as the whole being greater than the sum of its parts.' Psychologists study the whole person to gain an understanding of all the factors that might influence behavior. Holism uses several levels of explanation including biological, environment and social factors. Holistic approaches include Humanism, Social and Gestalt psychology and makes use of the case study method. Jahoda's 6 elements of Optimal Living are an example of a holistic approach to defining abnormality.

Question 78

evaluation of holism - Provides a more complete picture

Answer 78

Some examples of behaviour can only be understood at the holistic level, such as the conformity and deindividuation of Zimbardo’s prisoners and guards in his Stanford Prison Experiment. Research into resisting conformity, such as Gamson’s work into the role of social support in groups, also makes use of holistic explanations by looking at the interactions within and between groups. Therefore, holistic explanations may provide a more ‘complete’ picture of behaviour

Question 79

evaluation of holism - difficult to investigate the many differing types and levels of explanations

Answer 79

Holistic approaches can be hard to study because they involve many different types and levels of explanation. This makes it difficult to work out which factor is most important. As a result, it can be unclear which explanation to use when designing treatments. So, holistic explanations might not lead to effective therapies for mental health issues.

Question 80

evaluation of holism - More hypothetical and not based on empirical evidence

Answer 80

frequently used by the humanistic approach. However, there is a lack of empirical evidence associated with higher-level explanations and holistic viewpoints may simplify complex phenomena too far. As such, humanism is still seen as a set of rather loosely- joined abstract concepts. Therefore, holistic explanations may not be suited towards more complex behaviours.

Question 81

Reductionism

Answer 81

An approach that breaks complex phenomena into more simple components and implies that this is desirable because complex phenomena are best understood in terms of a simpler level of explanation. This is in contrast with holism.

Question 82

Biological reductionism

Answer 82

Reduce behaviour to a psychical level and explain in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structures. depression can be explained biochemically as a result of low levels of serotonin in the synaptic gaps between neurons.

Question 83

Environmental reductionism

Answer 83

stimulus-response reductionism. Explains complex behaviours as a series of S-R chains. phobias are obtained and maintained using classical and operant conditioning (through repeated pairings between the UCS and the NS to produce an CS, and then leading to a CS producing a CR, as shown through Watson and Rayner’s study of Little Albert).

Question 84

Levels of explanations

Answer 84

Reductionism suggests that lower-level explanations will eventually replace higher-level explanations, according to the reductionist hierarchy of science i.e. Sociology, Psychology, Biology, Chemistry and Physics (from top to bottom). Explanations begin at the highest level and progressively reduce down to the bottom of the hierarchy.

Question 85

evaluation of reductionism - consistent with scientific approach

Answer 85

Scientific psychology aims to be able to predict and control behaviour. Therefore, reductionism is consistent with the aims of science because it allows for this. Smaller, constituent parts of behaviour are easily measured and manipulated under strict laboratory conditions, and so ‘cause and effect’ relationships between variables can be reliably established. Hence, reductionism raises the scientific credibility of psychology.

Question 86

evaluation of reductionism -Practical application in the development of drug therapy

Answer 86

e.g. SSRIs to treat depression, based on the view that a deficiency in serotonin causes depression (biological reductionism). This also reduces need for institutionalisation, where sufferers can continue with their day to day lives through the use of non-invasive treatment and without regular hospital visits. Therefore, reductionist approaches have had a positive impact on people’s lives.

Question 87

evaluation of reductionism - ignores complexity of behaviour

Answer 87

Reductionism ignores the complexity of human behaviour by focusing too narrowly on one level (e.g. biological). This can reduce validity, as it overlooks the social context, which often gives behaviour its meaning. For example, speaking involves the same biological process, but the purpose (e.g. warning someone, expressing an opinion) depends on the situation. So, reductionist explanations may oversimplify complex behaviours and miss important psychological and social factors.

Question 88

idiographic approach

Answer 88

(‘idios’ = ‘distinct self’) seeks to understand the individual as a unique being without comparing them to others. the uniqueness of each person means it is difficult/impossible to identify general laws that apply across populations. Characteristics of the idiographic approach: Looks at individuals as unique cases and describes them Emphasis on qualitative over quantitative data Prefers individual case studies and self-report methods over large-scale experiments Most strongly associated with the humanistic approach to psychology and to a lesser extent psychodynamic approaches More subjective, less objective

Question 89

Nomothetic approach

Answer 89

(‘nomos’ = ‘law’) seeks to identify general laws of human behaviour by looking at similarities between people and groups of people. Psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. Tend to use quantitative methods. The psychometric approach to the study of personality compares individuals in terms of traits or dimensions common to everyone. This is a nomothetic approach and two examples are Hans Eysenck's type and Raymond Cattell's 16PF trait theories. Both assume that there are a small number of traits that account for the basic structure of all personalities and that individual differences can be measured along these dimensions.

Question 90

example of nomothetic approach

Answer 90

The behaviourist approach adopts a nomothetic perspective by aiming to establish universal laws of behaviour through stimulus–response learning. It relies on controlled lab experiments to identify cause-and-effect relationships, using standardised procedures and large samples to produce reliable, replicable, and generalisable findings.

Question 91

example of idiographic approach

Answer 91

The humanistic approach adopts a holistic and ‘phenomenological’ approach to research, which focuses on the experience of the individual. Such research methods were then used to develop the client-centred approach to therapy and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Question 92

evaluation of idiographic - time consuming

Answer 92

takes a lot of time and money to study individuals in depth. If a researcher is using the nomothetic approach once a questionnaire, psychometric test or experiment has been designed data can be collected relatively quickly.

Question 93

evaluation of idiographic - Qualitative data produces an in-depth and more complete account of an individual

Answer 93

This may support existing theories or challenge general laws and lead to development of improved psychological theories, through the process of deduction. For example, the case studies conducted on HM and Clive Wearing demonstrated that different types of long- term memory are located in different areas of the brain. This led to the further research of localisation and memory.

Question 94

evaluation of idiographic - The research methods used, such as case studies and unstructured interviews, lack scientific rigour

Answer 94

rely heavily on individual and subjective interpretation. Therefore, conclusions are open to researcher bias, which reduces the reliability of the findings and the extent to which they can be generalised to other individuals. This translates to a lack of validity when developing theories and assumptions based upon the idiographic approach.

Question 95

evaluation of nomothetic - May undervalue the impact of individual experiences

Answer 95

Some have criticised the nomothetic approach as ‘losing the whole person’ in psychology due to such an emphasis on establishing universal norms and unifying laws of behaviour. For example, research into the frequency of depression or bipolar disorder tells us little about the experiences of sufferers and so little about what treatments may be most beneficial. Therefore, the nomothetic approach, from this standpoint, has done little to improve people’s lives in comparison to the idiographic approach.

Question 96

evaluation of nomothetic - Nomothetic and idiographic approaches may be complementary to each other, rather than contradictory.

Answer 96

Milton and Davis (1996) suggest that research should start with a nomothetic approach and once general laws have been produced the focus should switch to an idiographic approach to develop our understanding and theories.Therefore, either approach can be used depending on the aims and nature of the research.

Question 97

evaluation of nomothetic - Enables unifying laws and general principles to be reliably established

Answer 97

The focus on objectively collecting reliable data has led to certain ‘norms’ or standards of behaviour to be established, such as the average IQ score being 100. Such norms act as a good baseline comparison for intellectual abilities and mental disorders.

Question 98

Socially sensitive research

Answer 98

Any research that might have direct social consequences for the participants in the research or the group that they represent.

Question 99

Sieber and Stanley 1988 definition

Answer 99

defined ‘socially sensitive’ research as “studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research”.

Question 100

Sieber and Stanley 4 groups which may be affected

Answer 100

1. Members of the social group being studied such as racial or ethnic group. 2. Relatives of those taking part in the study, particularly in case studies, where individuals may become famous or infamous. 3. The research team. There are examples of researchers being intimidated because of the line of research they are in. 4. The institution in which the research is conducted.

Question 101

Sieber and Stanley 4 main ethical concerns

Answer 101

1. The research question or hypothesis. 2. The treatment of individual participants. 3. The institutional context. 4. The way in which the findings of research are interpreted and applied.

Question 102

Ethical issues

Answer 102

Ethical issues occur when there's a conflict between the need to produce valuable research and the duty to protect participants’ rights, dignity, and well-being.

Question 103

Ethical implications

Answer 103

While psychologists can control how they conduct research and treat participants, they have less control over how findings are used. Research may be misrepresented in the media, influence public policy, or affect how certain social groups are viewed, leading to potential harm or stigma beyond the study itself.

Question 104

BPS ethical guidelines

Answer 104

respect, competence, responsibility and integrity. The potential ethical issues which arise as a result of breaching these guidelines include: privacy, confidentiality, valid methodology, deception, informed consent, equitable treatment, scientific freedom, ownership of data, values and the risk/benefit ratio.

Question 105

Examples of SSR

Answer 105

1. Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory: Bowlby’s claim that children must form an attachment with their primary caregiver within the first 2 years (or risk emotional and intellectual damage) had major social implications. As an advisor to the WHO, his theory influenced UK policy, leading to limited childcare support for under-5s — reinforcing the idea that mothers should stay at home, which affected women’s rights and employment. 2. Cyril Burt’s Research on Intelligence: Burt falsely claimed that intelligence was highly heritable (heritability coefficient = 0.77), which supported the introduction of the 11+ exam and selective education in the UK. Even after his data was exposed as fraudulent, the idea of fixed, inherited intelligence remained influential, affecting educational opportunities and reinforcing class-based inequality

Question 106

Evaluation of SSR - Important that researchers do not stay away from SSR

Answer 106

This is important because such research may have major positive impacts, such as challenging stereotypes or ‘scientific justifications’ for discrimination. For example, Scarr argues that only by studying these areas will the general public and scientific community develop a greater understanding for these underrepresented groups.

Question 107

Evaluation of SSR - increase discrimination

Answer 107

Socially sensitive research findings may be used to justify discrimination and prejudice. For example, the 1909 Asexualisation Act in California allowed for the sterilisation of people on the basis of psychological traits such as low intelligence or mental illness.

Question 108

Evaluation of SSR - cost benefit analysis

Answer 108

When deciding whether certain research projects should be allowed to continue, ethics committees undergo a cost-benefit analysis, where the benefit of the research (such as contribution to the existing field of knowledge) is compared to the costs of breaching ethical guidelines. However, some ethical implications of socially sensitive research may be particularly difficult to predict, such as the impact of such research on legislation and the way in which certain groups of people are perceived by the public.