1
Q
Define sensation
A
receiving, collecting and amplifying information from the environment (initial phase)
2
Q
Define perception
A
interpreting and organizing this information so that we may understand and react to it (later)
3
Q
List the 5 steps of a sensory pathway
A
1) Begin with receptors in specialized sensory organs
2) Involve key nerves in the PNS
3) Include synapses with brain stem nuclei
4) Are routed through and process by different parts of the thalamus
5) Have dedicated cortical areas
4
Q
define sensory organs
A
Organs containing specialized receptors attached to neurons that send signals into the brain
Include eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue
5
Q
Define rate adaption
A
In early sensory receptors, responses are related to the duration of stimulus application
This trend carries throughout the system through to the cortex
6
Q
Describe how nociceptive receptors produce an AP
A
Damage or irritation to the dendrite or to surrounding cells releases chemicals that stimulate the dendrite to produce action potentials
7
Q
Describe nociception and its rate of adaption
A
pain, temperature, itch
both pain and temp have slow adapting free nerve endings
8
Q
What are the five kinds of touch/pressure receptors and what do they detect
A
Meissner’s corpuscle: touch
Pacinian corpuscle: flutter
Ruffini corpuscle: indentation
Merkel’s receptor: steady skin indentation
Hair receptors: flutter/steady skin indentation
9
Q
Describe the rate of adaptation of touch/pressure receptors
A
meissner’s: rapid
pacinian: rapid
ruffini: slow
merkel’s: slow
hair: slow
10
Q
what is fine touch and pressure referred to as
A
hapsis
11
Q
Describe how a hapsis receptor sends an AP
A
Pressure on the various types of tissue capsules mechanically stimulates the dendrites within them to produce APs
12
Q
What is proprioception
A
body awareness
13
Q
how do proprioceptive receptors send an AP
A
movements stretch the receptors to mechanically stimulate the dendrites within them to produce action potentials
14
Q
List the three types of proprioceptive receptors, their function, and their rate of adaptation
A
muscle spindles, muscle stretch, rapid
golgi tendon organs, tendon stretch, rapid
joint receptors, joint movement, rapid
15
Q
How many cranial nerves do we have
A
12
16
Q
How many spinal nerves do we have
A
31
17
Q
CN for olfaction
A
CN I, olfactory
18
Q
CN for vision
A
CN II, optic
19
Q
CN for hearing
A
CN VIII, vestibulocochlear
20
Q
CNs for taste
A
CN VII, facial
CN IX, glossopharyngeal
CN X, vagus
21
Q
general nerves for touch
A
many cranial and spinal nerves involved
22
Q
List the six sensory cranial nerve nuclei
A
Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal
Chief sensory nucleus of trigeminal
Dorsal cochlear nucleus
Vestibular nuclei
Nucleus of tractus solitarius
Nucleus of spinal tract of trigeminal
23
Q
List the 10 motor cranial nerve nuclei
A
Edinger-Westphal nucleus
Oculomotor nucleus
Trochlear nucleus
Abducent nucleus
motor nucleus of trigeminal
lacrimatory nucleus
motor nucleus of facial
superior and inferior salivatory
nucleus ambiguus
dorsal nucleus of vagus
hypoglossal nucleus
24
Q
Where is the secondary olfactory area found
A
orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)
25
Where is the primary somatosensory cortex
parietal cortex
26
where are the secondary somatosensory areas
parietal, next to primary somatosensory cortex
27
Where are the primary and secondary visual areas
occipital cortex
28
Where is the primary auditory cortex and secondary auditory areas
temporal cortex
29
Where is the primary olfactory cortex
pyriform
30
Where is the primary gustatory cortex
insula
31
where is the secondary gustatory cortex
Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)
32
Describe the disproportionate representation of cortical areas
Representation is linked to adaptive utility, not physical size
33
What is another term for reorganization of cortical processing
neuroplasticity
34
Two reasons olfaction is important for survival
- threat warning
- social behaviour
35
Why was it proposed that smell-evoked memories are more emotionally intense
Since they can only be evoked by smell they are less frequent thus we attach more significance to them
36
What is the role of tears as a chemo signal
can reduce arousal, aggression, and testosterone
Not entirely proven due to irreplicable study with small sample size
37
what is the olfactory pathway (5)
1) Bipolar receptor
2) glomerulus
3) olfactory nerve
4) primary olfactory cortex in pyriform
5) secondary olfactory cortex in orbitofrontal cortex
38
What is one of the most common effects of head trauma and why
loss of taste and smell
both have important areas in the orbitofrontal cortex, which is easily damaged with head trauma
39
What are the two theories for how olfactory receptors signal
shape/docking theory, similar to lock and key model, receptor and odorant bind
vibrational theory (respond based on vibrational energy)
40
What do olfactory receptors detect
volatile odorants
41
Describe olfactotopic mapping
Unlike in sensory cortices, there is no evidence for segregated maps
Current evidence suggests a distributed map in the piriform cortex
42
What kind of testing measures might you suggest to better determine an olfactotopic map
optogenetics
allows for targeting a single cell population in a single cell area to determine its role in behaviour
Need to pick up individual cell activity in order to fine-tune map
43
What are the five tastes
sweet
salty
sour
umami
bitter
44
What is the gustatory pathway (9)
1) papillae of tongue
2) taste buds
3) gustatory cells
4) bipolar neurons
5) cranial nerves 7, 8, 10
6) brainstem structures
7) VPM thalamus
8) primary gustatory cortex in the insula
9) secondary gustatory cortex in the OFC
45
Describe the structure of papilla
On tongue, consist of many taste buds
46
Describe the structure of taste buds
Contain nerve fibre and basal cell leading to
light cell, intermediate cell, dark cell, and taste pore
47
Describe the structure of a taste pore
Innervated by processes of cranial nerves 7, 9, and 10
Contain segments for each type of taste, each with their own microvilli
48
What ligand and receptor are associated with spice?
Linked to capsacinoids
activate transient receptor potential cation channel subfamilly vanilloid member 1 receptors (TRPV1)
Therefore spicy foods strongly activate TRPV1 receptors
49
Describe gustotopic mapping
similar to olfactory mapping, no clear way is defined
initial reports in rodents suggested segregated maps but more recent reports show further distribution
50
What are two hypothesized theories on taste and where do we stand on them
Taste map theory: different areas of the tongue are used for different tastes, definitely disproven
Supertaster bud theory: people who are 'supertasters' are able to make fine distinctions in taste due to an increased density of fungiform papillae. Currently debated, not disproven
51
Describe taste intersections with an example
Emotional state influences taste, people watching horror movies consuming more juice but finding it less sweet
correlation between sweetness and state anxiety
52
what is the visible light spectrum
red: 700 nm
purple: 400nm
53
What are photoreceptors
sensory cells in eye; the rods and cones
54
Describe rods
More numerous than cones; function well in low light and are used in night
55
Define scotopic conditions
low light intensity/darkness; when rods are active
56
Describe cones
Less numerous than rods and are concentrated in the fovea
function well in light and are responsible for high acuity and color vision
57
Define phototopic conditions
high light intensity/bright conditions
58
how does species activity affect the composition of rods and cones in their eyes
species more active during the night have more rods
species active during the day have more cones
59
Describe cones and light sensitivity
Based on their light sensitivity, different cones can contribute to colour perception
the dysfunction of cones plays a role in colour blindness
60
Describe trichromatic colour theory
every color is a combination of three colors, and perhaps the activity patterns of three different cones
61
Describe opponent process colour theory
contrasting colour signals interact through antagonistic processing
Explains after images, when one signal is saturated then removed, the overcompensation by the antagonistic signal can be perceived
62
What are three contrasting colour signals
blue v yellow
red v green
black v white
63
Where is the information from one visual field processed
Info from a visual field processed by the opposite cortex
NOT the information from the entire eye
eg. left visual field processed by the right cortex
64
What is the thalamic region for vision
lateral geniculate nucleus
65
What pathway is used for optic radiation
geniculocortical pathway
66
What two regions does the geniculocortical pathway connect
lateral geniculate nucleus to primary visual cortex
67
Describe retinotopic mapping
different visual field regions are mapped in a different cortical region; even signals close to each other are discretely mapped
68
Describe the spectral sensitivity curve
a graph of perceived brightness of the same wavelength of light presented under scotopic and photopic conditions
69
What does a spectral sensitivity curve demonstrate
the relative spectral sensitivity of light, or the perceptual experience of light and colour
70
Define colour constancy
The subjective perception of a colour remains constant under varying illumination conditions because your visual system adjusts your perception of colour in a scene based on the perceived illumination of that scene
71
Describe why the dress illusion exists
Your brain makes adjustments based on how you think the dress is light and different people make different types of adjustments
72
What is the visual pathway
1) photoreceptors in the eye
2) optic nerve
3) Cross over at optic chiasm
4) optic tract to thalamus
5) lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus
6) Primary visual cortex, region V1
73
Why are sounds perceived differently
The waves involved have different physical characteristics
74
Define frequency and what its perceived as
The rate at which sounds waves vibrate measured in cycles per second
pitch perception
75
Define amplitude and what its perceived as
intensity of sound, measured in decibels
perception of loudness
76
Define complexity and timbre and what its perceived as
perception of sound quality
Most sounds are a mixture of frequencies, resulting in complexity
Complexity determines timbre
77
What is the threshold of human hearing
0dB to 200 dB
78
What is the approximate range of conversational speech
40-80 dB, 100-9000 Hz
79
What is the approximate musically useful range
30 dB- 110 dB
50-12 000 Hz
80
What is the threshold of pain by loudness in humans
130 dB at any frequency
81
Describe conduction pathway from auditory canal to auditory nerve (9)
1) auditory canal
2) tympanic membrane
3) Malleus
4) Incus
5) Stapes
6) Vibration passes oval window
7) into Cochlea
8) movement of hair cells
9) auditory nerves stimulated
82
Describe conduction pathway from auditory nerve to primary auditory cortex (7)
1) auditory nerve
2) ventral cochlear nucleus
3) dorsal cochlear nucleus
4) superior olivary nucleus
5) inferior colliculus
6) Medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus
7) primary auditory cortex
83
What is the thalamic region for hearing
Medial geniculate nucleus
84
How is a pitch perceived when a sound involves multiple waves
You perceive the pitch that is related to the greatest common divisor
85
What is the fundamental frequency
The greatest common divisor of a set of frequencies
86
What is intriguing about fundamental frequencies
the fundamental frequency is not always present in the combination of waves
87
Describe tonotopic mapping
Auditory map
different frequencies correspond to different regions of the cortex
similarly to vision, different sounds are discretely mapped
88
what is the specialized sensory organ for pain
skin
89
What do posterior root ganglion neurons do and where do they travel
respond to fine touch and pressure, joint, tendon, and muscle change , pain, temperature, and itch
cross over to contralateral side, joining the medial lemiscus pathway or anterior spinothalamic trtact
90
What travels through the posterior column nuclei and how do they ascend
relay haptic-proprioceptive information and ascend through the dorsal spinothalamic tract ipsilaterally
91
describe the function of the axons of the medial lemiscus in the brains tem
carry information from posterior and anterior tracts to the ventrolateral thalamus
92
What is the function of the ventrolateral thalamus
region of the thalamus that receives sensory information and relays it to the primary somatosensory cortex
93
List the columns in the sensory ascending pathway
dorsal column medial lemniscus system
spinocerebellar tract
anterolateral system
94
Two components of the dorsal column medial lemniscus system
- gracile fasiculus
- cuneate fasciclus
95
Function of the dorsal column medial lemniscus system
Carry signals for fine touch, pressure, proprioception, and vibration
96
Two components of the spinocerebellar tract
posterior
anterior
97
Two components of the anterolateral system
lateral
anterior
98
What tract carries signals for pain and temperature
anterior spinothalamic tract
99
Another term for crossing over
decussation
100
Function of decussation
contralateral processing
101
Describe decussation in the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway
upon entry, first neuron travels to medulla oblongata
synapse to second neuron occurs at nuclei of medulla
crossing over between medulla/midbrain
102
Describe decussation in the anterior spinothalamic pathway
upon entry, first neuron immediately synapses to second and crosses over to contralateral side of posterior gray horn
second neuron ascends to medulla oblongata and midbrain
103
describe the gate control theory of pain
transmission of touch information can modulate/ interfere with the transmission of nociceptive information due to the larger, myelinated neurons of touch compared to small unmyelinated pain neurons
explains reflex to touch/rub injured area
103
List the five components of the pain network
1) prefrontal cortex
2) anterior cingulate cortex
3) Insula
4) somatosensory cortex
5) amygdala
104
How can ascending nociceptive information be modulated
by descending imputs
105
What are two descending inputs that may affect ascending nociceptive information
Periaqueductal grey (PAG)
Rostroventral medulla (RVM)
106
Describe the pathway for motor command (3)
1) activation of upper motor neurons in the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe
2) Motor neuron axons form motor tracts in the midbrain and medulla
3) tracts synapse with lower motor neurons in the spinal cord, which affect muscle activity
107
What two structures form the pyramid
medulla and midbrain
108
Role of the prefrontal cortex
plans movements
mirror neurons speculated to play a role in learning/social cognition
109
Role of the premotor cortex
Organization of movement sequences
lesion impairs the ability to coordinate
110
Role of the primary motor cortex
initiates voluntary movement and includes the motor homonculus (in the precentral gyrus)
111
Where is the motor map found
precentral gyrus; frontal lobe
112
Where is the parietal lobe found
postcentral gyrus; parietal lobe
113
What is an alternative theory to the current motor homonculus
In the monkey, the areas of the premotor and motor cortex might represent general groups of behaviours rather than body parts
114
What tract commands for distal movements
lateral corticospinal tract
115
What tract commands for proximal movements
anterior corticospinal tract
116
Describe the function of the Basal ganglia
A network of structures that receives input from many sources and is involved in coordinating movement
117
Five structures within the Basal Galglia
- caudate
- putamen
- globus pallidus (internal + external)
- subthalamic nucleus
- substantia nigra
118
What two structures make up tthe striatum
caudate and putamen
119
What brain structure is impaired in parkinsons
substantia nigra of the basal ganglia
120
What does the substantia nigra stimulate
striatum
direct or indirect pathways
121
What type of neurons are impaired in parkinsons disease
Loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra
These neurons play an important role in refining movement
122
Three functions of the cerebellum
1) posture
2) coordination
3) balance
4) adapting learning
123
How can the cerebellum adapt learning
feedback of actual movement is sent to cerebellum via spinocerebellar tract
cerebellum sends error correction information to cortex
124
What is the likely explanation of increased brain size between different species
Increase in cerebellar neurons
PSY290
flashcards
Decks in class (12)
# Cards
-
L1: Intro to behavioural neuroscience109
-
L2: The Nervous System Genes, and Behaviour73
-
L3: Research Methods60
-
L4: Sensorimotor Function125
-
L5: Neurodevelopment122
-
L6: Learning and Memory77
-
Mini-Lecture: The neuroscience of prosociality34
-
L7: Eating75
-
Guest lecture: a step into psilocybin7
-
L8: Biorhythms, Sleep, and Dreaming75
-
L9: Drugs and Substance Use Disorder86
-
L10: Emotion and Psychological Disorders73
