1
Q
Compound Light Microscope Parts
A
2
Q
Magnification def
A
Apparent increase in size of the specimen
3
Q
Resolution def
A
Ability to distinguish two objects that are close together
4
Q
Contrast def
A
Ability to distinguish an object from its background
5
Q
Compound Light Microscope parts: eyepiece
A
- AKA Ocular lens
- Magnifies image by 10x
- Does NOT help resolution
- May include pointer
6
Q
Compound Light Microscope parts: Objective lenses
A
- Magnify AND increase resolution
SCANNER: 4x (find object)
LOW POWER: 10x (examine larger features)
HIGH POWER: 40x (detailed examination)
7
Q
Microscope parts: Coaxial Corse & Fine Focus Knob
A
- Moves stage up and down
- Corse focus: use only w/ scanner and low power lens
8
Q
Microscope parts: Coaxial Stage Motion Knob
A
- Large part at top = front and back
- Small part at bottom = side to side
9
Q
Compound Light Microscope parts: Condenser
A
- Focuses light from lamp
- Adjustment knob moved it up or down
- Aperture iris diaphragm: controls angle (contrast)
- Held in place and centered by centring screws
10
Q
Microscope parts: Field iris diaphragm
A
- Part of the lamp
- Controls the width of the beam of light
- Adjust contrast
11
Q
How to calculate Magnification
A
Ocular lens x objective lens
10x40=400x
12
Q
Parfocal System
A
Field of view will remain in focus as you change objective lense
13
Q
Depth of Focus
A
- Distance between lens and object required for image to be in focus
- AKA working distance
- Larger for 4x and very narrow for 40x
14
Q
Field of view size for each lens
A
- Scanner: 4x: 5mm (i.e. 10/4 of low power)
- Low power: 10x: 2mm (i.e. 4/10 of scanner)
- High Power: 40x: 0.5mm (i.e. 1/4 of low power)
- 1mm = 1000 microns µm
15
Q
Brownian Movement
A
- The continuous RANDOM movement of particles in water
- Robert Brown
16
Q
Diffusion
A
- NET movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- They move down the concentration gradient
- We say NET movement because some particles may go towards more concentration, but the total net movement is towards lower concentrations
17
Q
Heavy vs light molecule diffusion
A
- Light molecule travels faster because it requires less kinetic energy to move its light load.
- Size, shape, temperature also affect how fast a molecule will diffuse.
18
Q
How can materials PASSIVELY enter or exit a cell?
A
- Diffusion through the phospholipid bilayer
- Facilitated Diffusion (through channels or carrier proteins)
- Passive does not cost the cell any energy
19
Q
How can materials ACTIVELY enter or exit a cell?
A
- Active transport
- Cytosis
20
Q
Diffusion in or out of cells
A
- Phospholipid bilayer is semi-permeable
- CO2 and O2 and H2O (slowly) can pass via DIFFUSION
*
21
Q
Osmosis
A
Diffusion of H2O across a selectively permeable membrane
22
Q
Channel Proteins
A
- Provide an opening in the phospholipid bilayer through which specific small molecules can diffuse
- Uses NO ENERGY
- Can be gated
- Aquaporin: a channel protein for water
23
Q
Carrier Protein
A
- Pick up a specific molecule on either side of the phospholipid bilayer and brings it across
- No energy used
- Also diffusion (because goes from an area of high concentration to one of lower concentration
24
Q
Active Transport
A
- Will move molecules to a desired side of the phospholipid bilayer regardless of concentration gradient.
- Requires energy from the cell
- Cell can maintain higher or lower concentration than environment
25
Cytosis
* Pocket formed in cell membrane which forms a vacuole around molecule to transport it in or out of the cell
* Requires energy
* Endocytosis: goes inside cell
* Exocytosis: Exits cell
26
Isotonic
Same concentration there as in comparison area
27
Hypertonic
* Higher concentration of solute than in compared solution
* If A is hypertonic to B, then B has a higher concentration of water than A
28
Hypotonic
* Concentration of solute is lower than in compared solution
* In the hypotonic solution, the concentration of water is higher than in the compared solution
29
Turgidity
Firmness
30
Plasmolysis or crenulation
Too little H2O, so the cell collapses
31
Haemolysis
* In blood cells
* Too much water to the cell bursts
32
Binary Fission
* Prokaryotes
* Single cell splits in two
* Each has the same genotype as the parent cell
33
Mitotic Cell Division
* Eukaryotes
* Produces two nearly identical cells
34
Phases of Cell Cycle
1. Interphase (longest phase)
* G1 - Gap 1: cell builds protein and grows
* S - Synthesis of DNA: cell grows and copies DNA
* G2 - Gap 2: cell grows and does final preps
1. Mitotic Phase
* Mitosis: Division of nucleus
* Cytokinesis: Division of cell
35
Chromatin
* DNA mixed with proteins
* Inside nucleus during interphase
36
Chromosome
* Humans have 46, very coiled
* They copy have 92 chromatids
* Each chromatid is bound to another at centre by centromere, so it still leaves 46 chromosomes
* Chromosome = 2 chromatids bound by centromere
37
Mitosis phases
1. Prophase (prepare): Chromosomes codense, nucleolus starts to disappear, spindle starts forming. Cell gets rounder (animal cells only)
2. Prometaphase: Nuclear envelope breaks up, spindle attaches to centromere and begins to pull. Centrosomes begin to move to sides of cell (animal cells only)
3. Metaphase (middle): Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell on the cell plate
4. Anaphase (away): Chromatids break free of each other and are pull to either end by spindle. Each free chromatid is now considered a chromosome. Cell elongates (animal cells only)
5. Telophase (two): Spindle begins to disappear, chromosomes start to disperse, nucleoli and its envelope begin to assemble. In plant cells, a new cell wall (cell plate) begins to form. In animal cells, cell begins to pinch, forming the cleavage furrow.
38
Meiosis
* Produces haploid (n) cells from diploid
* Not part of the cell cycle
* Involves 2 cell divisions (Meiosis 1 and 2)
* Creates 4 daughter cells
39
Meiosis 1
1. Prophase 1: (Includes prophase and prometaphase). Chromosomes condense next to their homologue = homologous pair = crossing over
2. Metaphase 1: Homologous pairs line up on metaphase plate
3. Anaphase 1: Entire homologous pairs pulled apart = half the amount of chromosomes = 1n
40
Meiosis 2
* Starts with 2 n cells
* Same phases as Meiosis 1
* Produces 4 n cells
* n = haploid "half"
41
Spermatogenesis
1. Primary spermatocyte (2n) begins meiosis 1
2. It creates 2 secondary spermatocytes (n), which undergo meiosis 2
3. Creates 4 spermatids (n)
4. Spermatids mature to become spermatozoa
42
Oogenesis
1. Primary oocyte (2n) begins meiosis 1 and produces 1 secondary oocyte (n) (which kept almost all the cytoplasm during cytokinesis) and a polar body
2. The secondary oocyte undergoes meiosis 2, producing one ootid (n) and one polar body
3. The ootid matures to become an ovum
4. When the ovum is fertilized by a spermatozoan, it becomes a zygote
43
Spermatogenesis (identify parts)
* Name parts in attached image
* Inside the seminiferous tubule:
* Outer layer = spermatogonia which create more of themselves
* Spermatagonia push inwards and become large primary spermatocytes which begin meiosis 1
* This produces smaller secondary spermatocytes, pushed more towards the middle. they start Meiosis 2
* This results in tiny spermatids near the lumen (hollow center)
* The spermatids then migrate towards Sertoli (nurse) cells, which nourish them until maturity (spermatozoa with flagella)
44
Oogenesis (identify parts)
1. Before birth, girls have thousands of oogonia that have begun meiosis 1
2. They become primary oocytes and stop right before metaphase 1
3. When menstrual cycle begins, one at a time
4. Primary follicle is developed and contains the primary oocyte
5. Primary follicle grows x10 and begins to bulge out of the surface of the ovary as meiosis 1 is completed (it then contains a secondary oocyte)
6. At ovulation, the follicle ruptures and releases the secondary oocyte from the ovary.
7. The ruptures follicle remains inside ovary and is called corpus luteum, which will eventually break down
8. The secondary oocyte is picked up by the fallopian tube and migrates towards the uterus
9. If a spermatozoan comes in contact with it, meiosis 2 will start
10. Once meiosis 2 is finished, then the spermatozoan and ovum fuse and become a zygote
45
Phenotype
* Observable trait
* If you have the phenotype of the recessive allele, then you def have homozygous recessive genotype
* If you have the phenotype of the dominant allele, then you could be homozygous dominant or heterozygous
46
Genotype
* Combination of alleles
* Diploid can be either homozygous or heterozygous
* Homozygous (both alleles are the same at those loci (both dominant or recessive)
* Heterozygous (you have both types dominant and recessive alleles)
* Meiosis creates the alleles for the haploid cell
47
Dominance vs recessive
* An allele can be dominant (capital letter) or recessive (same letter as dominant, but small)
48
True breeding vs hybrid
also
monohybrid VS dihybrid cross
* True breeding: all individuals have the genotype AA or aa
* Hybrid: diploid organism that has one of each allele, so Aa
* Monohybrid cross: a hybrid cross when we are looking at a single trait
* Dihybrid cross: a hybrid cross when we are looking at two traits simultaneously (ex: kernel colour and kernel texture)
* In a dihybrid cross punnet square, we would put one allele for teach trait together, ex: AB, Ab, aB, etc... as each of the 4 parents
49
Generation names
* P = parental
* F1: first generation (offspring of P)
* F1: second generation (offspring of F1)
* etc...
50
Evolution def
A change in the frequency of alleles in a population
51
What two processes can result in evolution?
1. Genetic drift: a change in allele frequency due to chance
2. Natural selection: greater reproductive rate as a result of having a particular trait
52
If you suffer from a rare genetic disorder that is caused by a recessive allele at a single locus, and neither your parents nor your brother have the disease, what is the probability that your brother is a carrier?
* 2 chances on three
* 25% homozygous healthy
* 25% homozygous sick (me)
* remaining 50% is carrier
* Since I take myself out of the probability, it means brother has 2 chances on the remaining 3
53
DNA def
* Deoxyribonucleic acid
* Long string of nucleotides each of which has one of the four bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine)
* The sequence of these bases directs the production of specific RNA or protein
* Only 1.5% of human DNA codes for RNA
54
DNA Sequencing
* Finding the sequence of G, T, C and A from a sample
* Time consuming and expensive
* Easier to compare two sets of DNA through gel electrophoresis
55
Gel electrophoresis
* Restriction enzyme cuts the DNA at a specific sequence of bases, resulting in DNA fragments of different lengths (which is specific for each individual)
* Fragments of DNA move through gel. We increase their speed with an electric current (DNA negative, so attracted to positive pole)
* Smallest fragments will be fastest. This creates bands.
* Each band has DNA fragments of a particular size, unique to each individual = DNA fingerprint
56
Why do we use a warm lysis solution in DNA extraction?
* The heat will denature (break down the tertiary and quaternary structures of) the proteins in the cytosol that would damage DNA as the cell is broken up
* It contains 4 chemicals (SDS, Sodium citrate, Sodium chloride, EDTA)
57
What is each chemical in the lysis solution for?
1. SDS: sodium dodecyl sulfate. A strong detergent that allows lipids (or other nonpolar compounds) to mix with water. This allows the DNA to exit the phospholipid bilayer.
2. Sodium Citrate: Helps inactivate enzymes to prevent them from damaging DNA
3. Sodium Chloride: table salt. Proteins do not stay dissolved well in salt water. Prevents the DNA from dissolving in the ethanol
4. EDTA: EthyleneDiamine Tetraacetic Acid. A magnesium ion chelator. A chelator removes ions from a solution. Ions in the solution help to stabilize the phospholipid membranes and also activate the enzymes that would break up DNA.
58
Why do we need to cool the DNA and lysis mixture after the lysis has done its work?
DNA molecules are less likely to break if kept cool
59
Transcription
* A sequence of bases in DNA is transcribed into a sequence of bases in RNA
* The main molecule that accomplishes transcription is RNA polymerase, which binds to DNA at a specific sequence of bases (promoter sequence)
* RNA polymerase will then move away from the 3' end towards the 5' end
* As RNA polymerase moves, it builds a strand of RNA growing from its 5' to its 3' end with complementary bases
* This process stops at a terminator sequence
60
RNA complementary bases
Guanine - sticks to DNA's cytosine
Cytosine - sticks to DNA's guanine
Adenine - sticks to DNA's thymine
Uracil - sticks to DNA's adenine
61
Translation
* The sequences of bases in RNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a protein
* Performed by a ribosome
* Initiated at a specific RNA sequence (start codon) AUG
* Reads away from the RNA's 5' end towards the 3' end
* The ribosome ads one amino acid to the protein for each codon. It also ads one amino acid MET for the start codon
* Continues until a stop codon is reached
* At stop codon, the chain of amino acids (unfolded protein) is released. So is the ribosome.
62
Codon
A sequence of three RNA bases
63
In electrophoresis, after exposure to electric current, the gel is immersed in a warm stain solution. Why?
* The heat helps the diffusion process
* The stain sticks only to the DNA, allowing us to see distance travelled
64
A super long piece of DNA is cut between bases 25000 and 25001, then between 50000 and 50001. How many bands will you see and why?
3
one piece from 0 to 25000, one from 25001 to 50000, and one piece from 50001 to the end.
65
Taxonomy Levels
1. Domain (eukaria, archaea, bacteria, ...)
2. Kingdom (animalia, plantae...)
3. Phyla (chordata, arthropoda...)
4. Class (mammalia, aves, ...)
5. Order (carnivora, ...)
6. Family (felidae, ...)
7. Genus (panthera)
8. Species (panthera tigris)
66
Bacteria domain
characteristics
* prokaryotes
* no membrane-bound nucleus
* covered by a cell wall
* divide by binary fission
* chemoheterotrophic (obtain carbon from organic molecules and energy from chemicals
* Most abundant organisms in the world
* Unicellular
67
3 Basic Bacteria Shapes
* Round: coccus (these tend to stick together in a pile in the microscope)
* Stick-shaped: bacillus
* Spiral: spirillum (these look like pubes under the microscope)
68
What is this bacteria shape?
coccus
69
What is this bacteria shape?
Bacillus
70
What is this bacteria shape?
Spirillum
71
Cyanobacteria
* Of the domain bacteria
* Photoautotroph, but no chloroplasts
* aka blue-green algae
* single-celled, but often, cells stick together in filaments
* covered by a mucous or gelatinous sheath
* not motile
* under harsh conditions, some might become achinetes (inactive cell encased in a protective shell until better conditions)
* Oscillatoria and anabaena
72
Name this bacteria
oscillatoria
| (bacteria - cyanobacteria)
73
name this bacteria
anabaena
| (bacteria - cyanobacteria)
74
Domain Eukarya
* Cells have a membrane-bound nucleus and other organelles
* Divide by mitosis and sometimes meiosis
* evolved from prokaryotes 2 billion years ago
*
75
Name 4 common eukarya kingdoms
1. plantae
2. animalia
3. fungi
4. the rest are referred to collectively as protista
76
Diatoms
* domain eukaria
* unicellular
* photoautotrophic
* cells enclosed in a hard outer shell (testae)
* made of 2 overlapping halves like a shoe box with lid
* shell composed of silica
* geometric shapes
* some have motility moving along their raphe (slit opening in their shell)
77
Brown algae
* domain eukaria - protists
* multicellular
* photoautotrophic
* marine
* cell wall composed of cellulose and polysaccharides
* body: thallus
* bottom: root like "holdfast"
* leaf-ish "blade"
* stem-ish "stipe"
* swellings at tips: receptacles (produce gametes)
78
Green algae
* domain eukarya
* protist
* sometimes classified as kingdom plantae
* some unicellular (chlamydomones), some form colonies (volvox)
* cells surrounded by a thin wall of cellulose
* photoautotroph
79
name these algae
Chlamydomonas
* green algae - eukarya - protist
* rapid movement due to pair of (not visible) flagella
* cell has a single cup-shaped chloroplast which surrounds the nucleus and cytoplasm
80
Name these algae
Volvox
* form colonies
* move via a cooperative movement of each individual's flagella
* green algae - protist - eukarya
81
Amoebozoa
* protist - eukarya
* constantly changing shape
* unicellular
* chemoheterotroph
* move by streaming their cytoplasm into pseudopodia
* pseudopodia are also used in endocytosis
82
Ciliates
* protist - eukarya
* photo is a paramecium
* oval (not pointy tips)
* you can't really see much inside on the slide except for the nucleus
* unicellular
* chemoheterotrophs
* feed by endocytosis through oral groove
* swim by waving short cilia (not always visible)
83
Euglenozoa
* protist - eukarya
* oval but sort of pointy on one corner
* chemoheterotroph or photoautotroph (have chloroplast)
* motility via single flagellum (not visible)
* you can see stuff inside on the slide
84
Kingdom Fungi
* cell walls made of chitin
* multicellular (most)
* long filaments called hyphae
* tangled mat of hyphae = mycelium
* cytoplasm of adjacent cells in hyphae are connected by large pores that allow exchange of organelles
* sometimes, no cell division in hyphae, it's just one long cell with many nuclei
* nuclei are usually haploid
* chemoheterotrophic
* live on dead organic matter
* secrete enzymes to digest materials and absorb nutrients from their environment
85
2 of the 4 phylum of fungi
1. zygomycetes
2. basidiomycota
86
phylum zygomycetes
* fungi
* produce zygosporangium during sexual reproduction
* black bread mould
* spores do not have flagella
87
phylum basidiomycota
* kingdom fungi
* regular mushroom I eat
* produce a basidiocarp (the thing that sticks out of the ground)
* underground = hyphae
* basidiocarp = club shaped, produce spores that develop on surface of gills.
* gills under the hat (pileus) of the basidiocarp
* stem = stipe
88
yeasts, lichens and mycorrhizae
* kingdom fungi
* yeast = unicellular, moist environment. reproduce mostly by budding (some sexually). cell wall made of chitin
* lichen = two different organisms living together. not really a fungus, no real kingdom, actually. Mutualistic symbiosis of a photoautotroph (usually green or blue-green algae filaments) and a fungus.
* Mycorrhizae = mutualistic symbiosis of fungus hyphae and vascular plant
89
Photoautotroph
Get their energy directly from light and make their own C from CO2
90
Plants
some common characteristics
* multicellular
* photoautotroph
* eukaryotic
* cell wall made of cellulose
91
Angiosperm
* Flowering, vascular, seeding plants
* 5 classes including monocot and dicot
92
Monocot
some characteristics
1. 1 cotyledon
2. root has pith in center
3. no cambium
4. smaller phloem in root than dicots
5. in roots, endodermis is neatly aligned around circumference of root
6. no cortex or cambium in stems
7. smaller vascular bundles spread out throughout the stem
8. Their leaves have parallel veins and are attached to the stem by a sheath (no petiole)
9. Flowers are arranged in multiples of 3
93
Dicot
some characteristics
1. 2 cotyledons per seed
2. roots: no pith or cambium between xylem and phloem
3. phloem takes up more space in the root
4. endodermis not neatly aligned in a circle
5. In stems, pitch and cortex present
6. vascular bundles in stems are larger than for monocots and are concentrated in centre
7. leaves have branching veins and attach to stem with a petiole
8. flowers are arranged in multiples of 4 or 5
94
What's inside a seed
* plant embryo
* food
* protective case
95
Name the parts of the plant embryo
* radicle (root)
* plumule (leaf)
* cotyledon (leaflet modified to store food)
* endosperm (food storage)
* seed coat (protection)
96
Germination
Under the right conditions (temp and moisture), the seed will use the food of the cotyledons (and sometimes the endosperm too). The radicle grows roots, the plumule grows leaves to carry out photosynthesis for future growth.
97
4 basic plant tissues
1. meristem (embryonic)
2. dermal (surface)
3. ground (various)
4. vascular (transport)
98
Meristem tissue
characteristics
* embryonic tissue
* cells are small and cuboidal
* large nucleus and thin cell wall
* found in apical and axillary bud meristems
* thin layers in the cambium in dicot roots/stems and pericycle of monocot/dicot roots
* function: growth and repair. new cells provided by meristem tissue
99
Dermal plant tissue
characteristics
* outer surface tissue
* 1 + layer of flattish cells
* large nucleus, no chloroplasts
* may have hair or waxy cuticle
* some specialized guard cells form stomata (opening) that allow gas exchange
* guard cells have chloroplasts
* function: protect from injury and dehydration, exchanges or materials with environment
100
Ground tissue in plants
characteristics
1. umbrella term for several kinds of tissue
types:
* pith (in centre of stem/root)
* cortex (outside vascular tissue of stem/root)
* mesophyll (leaves)
1. long boxy cells, large central vacuole
2. some can divide after maturation
3. function: photosynthesis, mechanical support
101
Vascular tissue (plants)
characteristics
* transport system through roots, stems, leaves
* two types: xylem and phloem
* both phloem and xylem form tiny tubules, cannot divide
* found in roots, stems and leaves
102
xylem
* type of vascular tissue
* long, large, thick wall
* dead cells
* long tube of cell wall material, cell ends are open
* carry water and minerals from roots up to rest of plant
103
phloem
* type of vascular tissue
* long, smaller, thinner walls
* cells are alive, though some have lost nucleus
* sieve-tube members joined end to end with small holes between cells
* companion cells that maintain the phloem (they have a nucleus)
* transport sugar all around
104
Plant organs
1. roots
2. stem
3. leaves
4. flowers
105
roots
characteristics
* anchor the plant in soil
* absorb water and dissolved minerals
* store food
* centre has vascular cylinder surrounded by a thick layer of ground tissue (cortex), which stores material
* growing tip = apical meristem (provides new cells)
* root cap = protects apical meristem
* above apical meristem = zone of cell division
* above that = zone of elongation
* above that = zone of maturation where cells specialize
* root covered by a single layer of dermal cells = epidermis (may incl. root hairs)
106
Monocot root:
* has pith in centre
* no cambieum
* smaller phloem
* endodermis cells nicely aligned in cicle
dicot root
* no pith
* cambium between zylem and phloem
* phloem takes up more space
* endodermis less nicely aligned
107
parts of dicot vs monocot roots
108
Stems
characteristics
* support structure
* produce and support leaves and flowers
* conduct and store water, minerals and sugar
* two types: herbaceous and woody
109
herbaceous stems
* soft and green
* diameter doesn't grow much
* often annuals
* covered by epidermis
* can be dicot or monocot
110
Woody stem
* hard and brown
* considerable diameter growth
* perrenials
* corky bark
* dicot only
111
Monocot stem
* no cortex or cambium
* smaller vascular bundles
* vascular bundles spread throughout stem
Dicot Stem
* pitch and cortex
* larger vascular bundles
* vascular bundles concentrated at perimeter with pith in center
112
Monocot vs dicot stem parts
113
Leaves
* principle site of photosynthesis
* can also be spines or thorns to conserve water or discourage herbivores
* Parts:
1. blade (flat part)
2. petiole (stalk - not present in most monocots)
* no meristem tissue
* chloroplasts in guard cells and ground tissue
114
Monocot leaf
* parallel veins
* sheath attaches leaf to stem (no petiole)
Dicot leaf
* branching veins
* petiole attaches leaf to stem
115
Flowers
characteristics and parts
* reproductive organ
* parts arranged symmetrically in whorls on receptacle
* receptacle: enlarged end of stem
* sepals: outermost whorl (green or look like petals)
* petals: modified leaves, colourful to attract pollinators
* stamens: stalk + anther (2 pollen sacs) pollen is male gamete
* carpel: center. holds stigma (sticky). Stalk = style (holds up stigma)
* base of carpel swells to form ovary (ovules inside) ovule contains female gamete
* carpels often fused together into a pistil, but maintain separate stigmas
116
Monocot vs dicot flowers
* monocot: arranged in multiples of 3
* dicot: arranged in multiples of 4 or 5
117
Fruit
formation and characteristics
* once a female gamete in the ovule gets fertilized, ovule becomes a seed
* ovary becomes the fruit around it
* fruit aids in dispersion of seeds
* fruit parts:
1. pericarp: modified ovary (includes exocarp (outer skin) and mesocarp (inner rind))
2. seeds
3. Sometimes, you can even see the carpels inside
118
4 types of animal tissue
1. epithelial tissue (surface)
2. connective tissue (structural)
3. muscle tissue (contractile)
4. nervous tissue (conducting)
119
Epithelial tissue (animal) types
* simple (one row of cells)
* stratified (more than 1 row of cells)
* squamous (flat cells)
* cuboidal (box-like cells)
* columnar (long box cells)
In slides, epithelial tissue is seen at the edge of the sample.
120
Epithelial tissue (animal)
characteristics
* in slides, et see it at the edge of the sample
* covers or lines the body or some organs
* sheet of 1+ layer of cells in a layer of extracellular matrix (basal lamina) which is usually not visible
121
Stratified squamous epithelium
| (mammal skin)
* bottom layer (germinal layer) is box-like. cells become flatter as we move to the surface
* covered by flat dead cells (corneum) which wear off
* germinal layer goes through cell cycle. New cells are pushed towards the top to replace corneum
* protection from friction, blows, heat loss, water loss, etc...
122
Simple cuboidal epithelium
| (human kidney tubules)
* in the slide, the little holes are the tubules and the simple cuboidal epithelium is what lines them
* single layer of boxy (sort-of cubelike) cells
* tightly joined, the membranes between the cells might be tough to see
* form kidney tubules, smallest lung bronchioles, ducts of glands.
* function: secretion of certain materials
123
simple columnar epithelium
intestine lining
* single layer of brick-shaped cells
* nuclei near the base
* upper face might be covered by cilia
* lining the digestive or respiratory tract
* functions: secretion, absorption and dust filtration
124
Connective tissue (animal)
characteristics
* includes several different kinds with very different functions
* All have cells that are scattered in an extracellular matrix (web of fibres embedded in a liquid, jelly or solid material)
* three types of fibres:
1. collagenous fibres (for strength and flexibility)
2. reticular fibres (for attachment)
3. elastic fibres (for elasticity)
125
Loose connective tissue
animal
(areolar tissue)
* extracellular matrix = liquid
* loose web of all three types of fibres (collagenous, reticular, elastic)
* scattered in this are irregular cells with large nuclei (fibroblasts)
* found under the skin
* provides support while remaining elastic
126
Fibrous Connective Tissue
animal
(white fibrous tissue)
* More dense than loose connective tissue
* dominated by strong parallel collagenous fibres with fibroblasts squeezed between them
* found in tendons (that connect muscles to bones) and ligaments (that connect bones to other bones)
127
Cartilage
animal
(trachea)
* connective tissue
* matrix composed of collagenous fibres embedded in a solid but rubbery material
* oval cells are chondrocytes
* found at the end of bones (to reduce friction), joining ribs to sternum (for flexibility), in the nose, larynx, ... to provide shape with flexibility
128
Bone
animal
* connective tissue
* matrix is hard, mineralized, has collagen
* made up of many osteons fused together
* each osteon is composed of layers of matrix around a central canal (containing blood vessels and nerves) with cells (osteoblasts) between the layers
* provides anchos and levers for voluntary muscles, protects vital organs, stores calcium
129
Adipose tissue
animal
* specialized form of loose connective tissue
* adipose cells in matrix
* each adipose cell contains a large droplet of fat
* function: storage of food energy, insulation, padding
130
Blood
animal
* connective tissue
* no fibres
* liquid matrix called plasma
1. erythrocytes (red blood cells) - no nucleus, for transporting oxygen
2. leukocytes (white blood cells) - large, complexe nucleus. for protecting from infection
3. thrombocytes (platelets) tiny. irregular fragments, no nucleus. help clotting
131
Muscle tissue
characteristics
* capable of contraction
* responsible for body movement
* cells are long and thin
* cells are called muscle fibres
* three types: skeletal, smooth and cardiac
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Skeletal muscle tissue
* voluntary muscle
* attached by tendons to bones
* aka striated muscle tissue
* transverse bands give muscle a striated appearance
* each muscle fibre is very long with many nuclei and uniform in thickness with blunt ends
* does NOT branch like cardiac muscle
133
Smooth Muscle Tissue
* involuntary muscle
* not attached to bones
* no transverse bands
* each fibre is a single cell, tapering at the ends
* found in the walls if intestines, blood vessels, air passages, trachea, etc...
* function: change the diameter of some tubes and move materials through other tubes
134
Cardiac Muscle
* contraction is involuntary
* muscle fibres are short with a single nucleus
* connected by intercalated discs into long branched chains of cells
* in the heart, so responsible for pumping blood throughout the body
* recognize this slide because of the muscle fibers forking at places
135
Nerve tissue
* found in the nervous tissue
* two types
1. neurons (transmit signals)
2. glia (help neurons function)
* neurons have a cell body with nucleus, dendrites that receive signals and transmit them to the cell body and an axon that transmits signals from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands
136
Mammal respiratory system
steps
1. nostrils (or mouth)
2. nasal cavity (air is moisturized/warmed/filtered)
3. pharynx
4. glottis
5. larynx (where vocal cords are): moisturize, warm, filter air again
6. trachea
7. bronchi
8. lungs
9. bronchioles
10. alveoli (sacs at the end of bronchioles): oxygen diffuses out of them into the blood. CO2 diffuses into them from the blood
11. diaphragm is muscle that moves air in/out
137
Mammal digestive system
steps
* mouth
* oral cavity
* teeth (physical digestion) + saliva (chemical digestion) + tongue (manipulate food)
* pharynx (epiglottis prevents food from entering the larynx)
* oesophagus
* stomach (chemical digestion)
* small intestine (digested food absorbed by the body)
* liver and pancreas (secrete juices for chemical digestion in the small intestines)
* large intestine (water and minerals absorbed)
* rectum (storing faeces)
* anus
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Mammal circulatory system
steps
* Mammal heart has 4 chambers (2 atria and 2 ventricles)
1. Blood returns to the left atrium from the lungs through pulmonary veins
2. left atrium pumps blood into left ventricle
3. left ventricle pumps blood through aorta to most of the body
4. arteries carry blood away from the heart to capillaries
5. in capillaries, O2 and CO2 are exchanges
6. veins carry blood back to heart with the vena cava into the right atrium
7. right atrium pumps blood to the right ventricle
8. right ventricle pumps blood to lungs via the pulmonary artery
9. in the lungs, capillaries surround each alveolus
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Excretory system
mammal
1. waste material is filtered out of the blood flowing through the kidneys
2. waste passes through ureters into urinary bladder
3. ejected through urethra
140
Identify pig digestive and respiratory parts
* right atrium
* lungs
* heart
* liver
* urinary bladder
* larynx
* trachea
* vena cava
* rib cage
* left atrium
* diaphragm
* stomach
* pancreas
* small intestine
* large intestine
* anus
141
identify pig excretory parts
* larynx
* trachea
* right kidney
* urethra
* oesophagus
* diaphragm
* vena cava
* left kidney
* ureters
* urinary bladder
142
9 common phyla of the Animalia kingdom
1. porifera (porous - sponges)
2. cnidaria (sting like a knife - jellyfish)
3. echinodermata (spiny skin - starfish)
4. chordata (spinal cords - vertebrates)
5. platyhelminthes (plat - flatworm, tapeworms)
6. Mollusca (clams, octopi)
7. annelida (earthworms)
8. nematoda (roundworms)
9. arthropoda (insects, spiders, crustacians)
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Porifera
characteristics
* sponges
* numerous pores with 1+ larger opening
* body made up of 2 layers of cells with a gel
* sessile, filter-feeders, marine
* Symmetry: none (some radial)
* Reproduction: asexual (budding) or sexual (no specialized organs), hermaphrodite. Fertilization internal
* Digestive system: none, intracellular digestion
144
Cnidaria
characteristics
* sessile cup-shaped, mouth facing up (hydra, anemone, coral) OR
* free-swimming medusa, mouth down (jellyfish).
* all have specialized STINGING CELLS
* Symmetry: radial
* Reproduction: asexual (budding) or sexual (hermaphroditic, fertilization external
* Nervous system: nerve net, simple sensory cells, sometimes eyes
* Digestive system: incomplete, gastrovascular cavity. intra AND extracellular digestion
* exoskeleton in coral
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Echinodermata
characteristics
* starfish, brittle stars, sea cucumbers
* carnivores (some filter feeders)
* unique tube feet for locomotion, respiration, circulation, excretion
* Symmetry: radial
* Reproduction: sexual (separate sexes usually), fertilization external
* Nervous system: simple brain (nerve ring) with nerves and sense organs
* Digestive system: complete, extracellular digestion
* Circulatory system: open, 1 chambered heart
* Respiratory system: gills
* Body cavity: coelom
* Endoskeleton with calcium
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Chordata
characteristics
* sea squirts, lancelets and vertebrates
* four features in all chordates:
1. notochord
2. dorsal hollow nerve cord
3. pharyngeal pouches (embryonic gills)
4. muscular post-anal tail (sometimes lost in adults)
* Symmetry: bilateral
* Reproduction: sexual, separate sexes, external or internal fertilization
* Nervous system: brain with dorsal hollow nerve cord, ganglia, sense organs
* Digestive system: complete, extracellular digestion
* Circulatory system: closed, heart with 2+ chambers
* Respiratory system: gills or lungs
* Excretory system: nephridia (ass hole)
* Body cavity: coelom
* Appendages: paired
* endoskeleton
147
Platyhelminthes
characteristics
* flatworms, flukes, tapeworms
* cilia often used for locomotion
* aquatic carnivores or parasites
* Symmetry: bilateral
* Reproduction: asexual (fission) or sexual, hermaphroditic, internal fertilization
* Nervous system: net-like, simple brain and nerves, sense organs (or not)
* Digestive system: incomplete (gastrovascular cavity with intra and extracellular digestion
* Excretory system: protonephridia (osmoregulation)
* Segmentation: only in tapeworms
148
Mollusca
characteristics
* snails, clams, squids, nautili
* muscular foot (or modified to tentacles)
* calcareous shell
* Symmetry: bilateral or none
* Reproduction: sexual, separate sexes (except for snails = hermaphrodites, internal fert) external fertilization for most
* Nervous system: simple brain (nerve ring) with nerves and ganglia, sense organs
* Digestive system: complete, extracellular digestion
* Circulatory system: open with 3 chambered heart (2 in snail/slug, extra heart in squid, octopus)
* Respiratory system: gills (snail has lung)
* Excretory system: metanephridia
* Body cavity: coelom (small)
149
Annelida
characteristics
* earthworms, leech, sandworms, sea mouse
* segmented
* each segment has hairs that help locomotion
* most free-living, but some parasites
* if cut in half, front can survive, rear dies
* Symmetry: bilateral
* Reproduction: sexual, hermaphroditic, internal
* Nervous system: simple brain (nerve ring), nerves, ganglia, sense organs
* Digestive system: complete, extracellular digestion
* Circulatory system: closed with several 1 chambered hearts
* Respiratory system: none or gills
* Excretory system: metanephridia
* Body cavity: coelom
* Segmentation: prominent
* Appendages: some have paired appendages
150
Nematoda
characteristics
* roundworms, ascaris (parasite)
* tough outer cuticle that molts
* LASHING MANNER of LOCOMOTION because only longitudinal muscles
* most free-living, some parasitic
* Symmetry: bilateral
* Reproduction: sexual, separate sexes, internal fertilization
* Nervous system: simple brain (nerve ring), nerves, no sense organs
* Digestive system: complete, extracellular
* Excretory system: simple glands
* Body cavity: pseudocoelom (cavity under skin)
* Segmentation: NO
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Arthropoda
characteristics
* spiders, scorpions, crabs, millipedes, insects, lobsters, tick
* largest phyla
* chitinous exoskeleton (moulted)
* distinct body regions (head, abdomen, thorax...)
* some have complexe social organization
* Symmetry: bilateral
* Reproduction: sexual, sexes separate, internal fertilization
* Nervous system: brain, nerves, sense organs
* Digestive system: complete, extracellular
* Circulatory system: open, 1-chambered heart
* Respiratory system: trachea, lungs or gills
* Excretory system: malpighian tubules or metanephridia
* Body cavity: coelom, but small
* Segmentation: yes
* Appendages: paired, jointed legs, insects have 2 pairs of wings
152
Name 4 phyla that can be parasites
1. platyhelminthes (tapeworm)
2. annelida (leech)
3. arthropoda (tick)
4. nematoda (ascaris)
153
Lampreys
phylum Chordata
* eel
* no jaws, circular sucking mouth
* mostly parasites
* Skin: slimy, no scales
* Skeleton: notochord, simple cartilage skeleton with proto-vertebrae
* Mouth: no jaw, toothed tongue, mouth with teeth
* Circulation: 2 chambered heart, 1 blood circuit
* Respiration: 7 pairs of gill slits
* Fertilization: external, oviparous
* Nervous system: brain with small cerebrum
* Senses: lateral eyes, lateral lines, dorsal nostril, ears
* Medial fins: 2 dorsal 1 caudal (tail)
* Segmentation: yes
* Poikilotherm
154
Cartilaginous fish
Phylum Chordata
* sharks, rays, ratfish, skates
* skeleton of cartilage
* separate, arched vertebrae to protect nerve chord
* caudal (tail) fin is asymetrical
* spiral valve intestine
* cloaca (common opening for poop and sex)
* Skin: slimy, scales
* Skeleton: notochord, cartilage skeleton with vertebrae
* Mouth: jam, teeth
* Circulation: 2 chambered heart, 1 blood circuit
* Respiration: 5 pairs of gill slits, 1 pair spiracles (breathing hole)
* Fertilization: internal, oviparous (some oviviparous)
* Nervous system: brain with small cerebrum
* Senses: lateral eyes, lateral lines, 2 ventral nostrils, ears, electroreceptor pits
* Paired pectoral and pelvic fins, single dorsal, ventral and caudal (tail) fins supported by horny rods
* Poikilotherm
155
Ray-finned fish
Phylum Chordata
* salmon, seahorse, swordfish, sturgeon
* bony skeletons
* exception: sturgeon has cartilage skeleton and retains notochord into adulthood)
* may provide care to babies
* Skin: slimy, scales under skin
* Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adults
* Mouth: jaw, teeth (none in seahorse or sturgeon)
* Circulation: 2 chambered heart, 1 blood circuit
* Respiration: 5 pairs of gill slits
* Fertilization: external, oviparous
* Nervous system: brain with small cerebrum
* Senses: lateral eyes, lateral lines, 2 dorsal nostrils, ears, sometimes electroreceptor pits
* Swim bladder to control buoyancy
* Paired pectoral and pelvic fins, single dorsal, ventral, caudal fins supported by cartilage and or bone rods (rays)
* Poikilotherm
156
Lungfish
Phylum Chordata
* similar to ray-finned fish
* Cloaca present (common hole)
* Skin: slimy, scales under epidermis
* Skeleton: notochord, bones skeleton, vertebrae
* Mouth: jaw, teeth
* Circulation: 2.5 chambered heart, 2 blood circuits
* Respiration: 5 pairs of gill slits, simple lungs (2), 2 dorsal nostrils, air pushed into lungs from mouth
* Fertilization: mostly external oviparous
* Nervous system: brain with small cerebrum
* Senses: lateral eyes, lateral lines, 2 dorsal nostrils, ears, sometimes electroreceptor pits
* Paired pectoral and pelvic fins (long and very thin) on a fleshy base, dorsal, ventral and caudal fins are fused together
* Poikilotherm
157
Amphibians
Phylum Chordata
* frogs, salamanders, caecilians
* live on both land and water (moist habitats if land only)
* Carry eggs until hatched (eggs must be kept wet)
* Skin: slimy, smooth, no scales
* Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adult
* Mouth: jaw, small teeth on upper jaw (none in toads)
* Circulation: 3 chambered heart, 2 blood circuits
* Respiration: simple lungs, 2 nostrils, gas exchange through skin and mouth also
* Fertilization: external, oviparous, eggs without shell
* Nervous system: brain, moderate cerebrum
* Senses: dorsal eyes, ears, 2 nostrils
* 2 pairs of lateral limbs (none in caecilians), digits often webbed
* Poikilotherm
158
Mammals
Phylum Chordata
* mammary glands
* extensive parental care
* clocoa in platypus
* Skin: covered by corneum, hair, rarely scales
* Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adults, tail varyable
* Mouth: jaw, specialized teeth
* Circulation: 4 chambered heart, 2 blood circuits
* Respiration: pair of lungs inflated by diaphragm, 2 nostrils
* Fertilization: internal viviparous (oviparous for platypus)
* Nervous system: brain, very large cerebrum
* Senses: frontal/lateral eyes, ears, nostrils
* 2 pairs of limbs, 5 digits rarely webbed
* Homeotherm
159
Turtles and Lizards
Phylum Chordata
* lay eggs on land
* shell of bony plates covered by scales
* Cloaca
* Skin: dry, scales
* Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adults
* Mouth: jaw, no teeth, horny beak
* Circulation: 3.5 chambered heart, 2.5 blood circuits
* Respiration: pair of lungs, 2 nostrils, cloaca
* Fertilization: internal, oviparous, egg with leathery shell
* Nervous system: brain with moderate cerebrum
* Senses: dorsal/lateral eyes, ears, 2 nostrils
* 2 pairs of lateral limbs, 4-5 digits with webbing
* Poikilotherm
160
Lizards and Snakes
Phylum Chordata
* Cloaca
* Skin: dry with scales
* Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adults
* Mouth: jaw, teeth
* Circulation: 3.5 chambered heart, 2.5 blood circuits
* Respiration: pair of lungs or just one, 2 nostrils
* Fertilization: internal, oviparous (often ovoviviparous or viviparous). eggs with leathery shell
* Nervous system: brain with moderate cerebrum
* Senses: dorsal/lateral eyes, ears, nostrils
* 2 pairs of lateral limbs or none, 4-5 digits
* Poikilotherm
161
Crocodilians
Phylum Chordata
* crocodiles, alligators, gavials
* aquatic, but air breathing
* powerful laterally flattened tail
* Lay eggs on land
* parental care
* cloaca
* Skin: dry, scales
* Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adults
* Mouth: jaw, teeth, gizzard
* Circulation: 4 chambered heart, 2.5 blood circuits
* Respiration: pair of lungs, 2 nostrils
* Fertilization: internal, oviparous, egg with leathery shell
* Nervous system: brain, moderate cerebrum
* Senses: dorsal eyes, ears, nostrils
* 2 pairs of lateral limbs, 4-5 digits, partial webbing on back feet
* Poikilotherm
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Birds
Phylum Chordata
* adaptations for flight
* extremely complex behaviour
* extensive parental care
* social (sometimes)
* closest relatives of dinosaurs
* cloaca
* Skin: corneum, feathers, scales
* Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, long bones are hollow, no notochord in adults, reduced tail
* Mouth: jaw, no teeth, beak, gizzard
* Circulation: 4 chambered heart, 2 blood circuits
* Respiration: 2 lungs, 2 nostrils
* Fertilization: internal, oviparous, eggs with hard shell
* no urinary bladder
* Nervous system: brain, large cerebrum
* Senses: lateral eyes, ears, nostrils
* Forelimbs modified for flight (wings), hind limbs with 3-4 digits (sometimes webbed)
* Homeotherm
Biology 201
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