Lab Practical 2 Flashcards by Moeka Nakagawa

PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 1

What is laminar flow? Why do blood in direct contact with the vessel flow slower than blood in the center of the vessel? What 2 processes impact blood flow with regards to radius? The opening of the blood vessel where the blood ﬂows is called the ___. Blood ﬂow is measured in ___. Do you think a graph plotted with radius on the X-axis and ﬂow rate onthe Y-axis will be linear (a straight line)? As the radius increases, flow rate ___. They are ___. What is the driving force for blood ﬂow? How is it established? Does the pressure change? After a heavy meal, when we are relatively inactive, we might expect blood vessels in the skeletal muscles to be somewhat ___ and the blood vessels in the digestive organs to be somewhat ___. Describe the eﬀect that radius changes have on the laminar ﬂow of a ﬂuid.

free flowing blood in the center of the blood vessel
slow because of friction
vasoconstriction & vasodilation
lumen
ml/min
exponential, directly proportional to vessel radius to the 4th power
flow rate increases, they are directly proportional
pressure gradient established by heart contraction
pressure remains the same
constricted, dilated
laminar flow increases with increase in radius

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PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 2

What is viscosity? It is due to ___. Viscosity most directly affects ___. As viscosity increases, resistance ___, and flow rate ___. What is the relationship between ﬂuid ﬂow and viscosity? Increase in number of RBC ___ blood viscosity. ___ is a disease of increased RBC count. ___ is a disease in decreased platelets. ___ is a disease in reduced RBC.

stickiness of blood
due to plasma proteins & fromed elements
viscosity directly affects resistance
as viscosity increases, resistance increases, flow rate decreases
They are inversely proportional to each other
as RBC count increases, viscosity increases
polycythemia
thrombocytopenia
aplastic anemia

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PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 3

As blood vessel length increases, resistance ___, friction ____, surface area ___ and laminar flow ___. Blood flow and tube length’s relationship, length and resistance? Gaining weight results in ___ in blood vessel length, and losing weight results in ____ in blood vessel length. Does blood vessel length or radius have a larger effect on the body?

resistance, friction, surface area increases
laminar flow decreases
fluid flow and length are inversely proportional (not linear), length and resistance directly proportional
weight gain = increase length
weight loss = decrease length
radius because it is to the 4th power

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PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 4

Pressure difference is called the ___. It is the ___ for blood flow. The initial pressure/main pressure is provided by the ___ and ___ contributes to the pressure gradient. Arteries closer to the heart has ___ force. The relationship of pressure and flow rate is ___ and linear/exponential. What most contributes to flood flow control (length, radius, viscosity, pressure)?

pressure gradient
driving fore of blood flow
initial pressure by the force of contraction of heart & resistance contribute to gradient
closer to the heart, more force
directly proportional, linear
radius because to the 4th power

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PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 5

What is diastole and systole? What is one factor that determines the amount of blood that fills up? What is end diastolic volume? What is stroke volume? end systolic volume? Right side of heart pumps blood to the ___ and left side to the ___. ___ is the layer of blood vessel stimulated by the ANS. As the radius increases, pump rate to maintain constant pressure ___.

diastole = relaxation of heart, when blood fills
systole = contraction of heart, blood pumped out
length of relaxation
EDV = volume in the ventricles at end of diastole
SV = volume ejected by contraction
ESV = volume remaining in ventricle after contraction
R to the lungs, L to the body
smooth muscle
increase radius = increases pump rate
in

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PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 6

What is the formula for SV? What 3 factors affect SV? What does the frank-starling law of the heart state? What is preload? As heart rate decreases, EDV ___. what increases EDV? What 2 things decrease EDV?

SV = EDV - ESV

preload, contractility, afterload
the more volume returned by the venous system, more heart muscles stretch, which results in more forceful contraction of the ventricles
preload = degree of stretch by EDV (hence, preload affected by ventricular filling or magnitude of EDV)
decrease HR = increase EDV
exercise increase EDV
blood loss/dehydration decrease EDV

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PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 6

What is contractility? When does it increase? Which results in ___ SV. Cardiac muscle demonstrate ___ relationship.

strength of cardiac contraction (as space between sacromeres increase)
increase with increase EDV, which increases SV
length-tension relationship

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PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 6

What is afterload? Does it affect healthy people? What about those with high BP?

back pressure generated by blood in aorta and pulmonary trunk, the threshold that. must be overcome for the SL valves to open
does not affect healthy people
those w/high BP contract against greater pressure so SV decreases

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PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 6

What is the equation for cardiac output? What is the relationship between blood flow and CO? Hence, when SV decreases, HR ___ to maintain CO and vice versa

Chart - venous return, contractility, afterload, EDV

CO = SV x HR

directly proportional
decrease SV have to increase HR

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PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 6

Graph
Does blood flow change? As SV increased, HR ___. Why do athlete’s HR lower than?

blood flow = CO, which remains the same by either HR or SV compensating for the other
increase SV = decrease in HR
SV & contractility increased

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PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 7

What is aortic valve stenosis? It ___ resistance and afterload. The body compensates by ___ contractility and making ___ the myocardium. The myocardium increases in ___ as well. What is atherosclerosis? It ___ resistance.

partial blockage of the aortic SL valve
increases resistance & afterload
increase in contractility by making the myocardium thicker
athletes
atherosclerosis = plaques in arteries, increase resistance

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***PhysioX Cardiovascular Dynamics Activity 7

What is the most logical way to compensate for an increase in peripheral resistance? Without a diﬀerence in pressure between the pump and the destination beaker ___. What is the most logical way to compensate for decreased pressure due to increased radius? With aortic stenosis, radius ___ and heart rate ___ because.

increase in resistance = increase contractility
the valve will not open
increase contraction force
radius decrease (constrict) to compensate for decreased pressure due to decreased heart rate (to give more time for heart to fill up)

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Increase/decrease ____ to increase preload.
Increase/decrease ____ to increase contractility.
Increase/decrease ____ to decrease afterload.

Which mechanism had the greatest compensatory eﬀect?

Increase radius to increase preload.
Increase pressure to increase contractility.
Increase HR to decrease afterload (since pumping more out)

preload and contractility

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What is the advantage of breathing through the nose?

nasal mucous membranes trap dust/debris, hair also traps, warms the air so more efficient to diffuse thru bloodstream

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Why do we need a hard palate for the roof of mouth? Why do we need soft palate?

need something strong to chew (bone)

- soft palate need bc need to squeeze food down

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What does the uvula do?

useful in moving direction of food

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What does the hyaline cartilage of the mouth do?

keeps trachea open

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Where does the esophagus and trachea open? What is always closed and open?

laryngopharynx
esophagus closed until food runs through it
trachea always open

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Pharynx development occurs in the ___.

first 2-4 weeks

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Identify the organ

Lung

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Identify the structure. What are the 3 layers?

trachea

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
submucosa
hyaline cartilage

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What disease is this?

Emphysema

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What disease is this?

Lung cancer

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What is this structure?

Duct

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Identify the structure

Terminal bronchiole

Identify the structure

Pulmonary vein

Identify the structure

Pulmonary artery

What are the 3 layers of the pharynx?

naso, oro, laryngopharynx

What keeps the trachea open?

hyaline cartilage

What is the function of the nasal conchae?

increase SA of mucosa

What are the functions of the false/vestibular and true vocal cords?

``` vestibular = holds true chords in place true = produce sound ```

What do the type 1 and 2 alveloar cells do?

type 1 structure of the alveoli | type 2 secrete surfactants so cells wont stick to each other when deflate

What is the conducting and respiratory zone?

conducting = brings air to lungs (everything else) respiratory = where gas exchange takes place (respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts, alveoli)

Exercise 7 Activity 1 Measuring respiratory volumes and calculating capacities What are the 2 phases of ventilation? How does inspiration and expiration occur? Which muscles contract/relax? Which muscles are used in forced expiration? When do forced expiration occur? (3) Quiet breathing is around ___mL and is called the ___. What is TLC, VC, FVC? An obstructive disease affects ___ and restrictive disease affects ___. Measuring the ___ can help a clinician determine the diﬀerence between obstructive and restrictive diseases As the radius of the airway decreased, FEV ___. (what is FEV)

- inspiration & expiration - inspiration = air into lungs - expiration = air out of lungs - diaphragm and external intercostal muscles - forced expiration = abdominal wall muscles and intercostal muscles - occur when exercising, blow air, cough, sneeze - 500mL, tidal volume - TLC = max air in lungs - VC = max amount of air inspired then expired - FVC = amount of air expelled after taking deepest inspiration possible then forcefully expired as completely/rapidly as possible - An obstructive disease aﬀects airﬂow, and a restrictive disease usually reduces volumes and capacities. - forced expiratory volume - decrease radius = decrease FEV - FEV is the forced volume expired in 1 second.

Exercise 7 Activity 2 Describe emphysema breathing. What is lost? What is destroyed? What increases? Why does it take more effort to expire? What is the rate of expiration?

Emphysema - loss in elastic recoil of lung tissue as walls of alveloi destroyed - airway resistance increased as lungs become more flimsy - hence requires LOTS of exhausting effort to expire because lungs cannot passively recoil and deflate - expiration slow

Exercise 7 Activity 2 Describe acute asthma attack breathing. What happens to the airways? (2) This ___ resistance. Like with emphysema, the airway ___ before ___. Thus, volume and peak flow rates is ___ during an asthma attack. They can be triggered by ___ (3). Unlike emphysema, ___ is not diminished. Inhalers are ___ (like a ___ or ___ agonist) that induces ___. It can also contain ___ that suppresses inflammatory response. Overall, inhalers reduce ___.

Acute asthma attack - bronchiole smooth muscle contracts, airway constricted - increases air resistance - clogged with thick mucus secretions - airways collapse and close before expiration completed - flow rates and volumes reduced - triggered by allergens, extreme temperature change, exercise - recoil not diminished - inhalers are smooth muscle relaxant (like a beta-agonist or acetylcholine agonist) that induces bronchiole dilation - contain corticosteroids to suppress inflammatory response - inhalers decrease airway resistance

Exercise 7 Activity 2 Describe breathing during moderate exercise. What 2 things increase? Do they increase by the same amount? Why do we need these changes?

Moderate - breathing rate and tidal volume increases - increase in TV > increase in breathing rate - need them to meet increased metabolic demands

Exercise 7 Activity 2 Which of the following respiratory values represents a decreased ﬂow rate during the obstructive lung disease(s)? Which lung value was most effected by the emphysema and asthma attack patient? What happened to the RV for the emphysema patient and the asthmatic patient? Which value in the spirogram never changed from that of the normal patient? Did breathing rate or tidal volume more change during moderate exercise? What is the largest volume for the normal patient? What is the formula for TLC? FVC?

- FEV = flow rate (breathing) - in both asthma attack and emphysema FEV decreased - RV decreased for emphysema and asthma - TLC never changed (6000) - TV changed more - IRV largest for normal patient - TLC = TV+IRV+ERV+RV - FVC = IRV + ERV + TV

PhysioX exercise 7 activity 3 What is surface tension? What does it resist and do? What decreases surface tension? Intrapleural pressure is less than intrapulmonary pressure between breaths. What 2 forces cause the negative pressure condition? Because interpleural pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, opening in pleural membrane equalizes pressure by allowing air into the pleural cavity. This condition is called ___. This can lead to lung collapse called ___. What did the addition of surfactants do? Which ___ air flow. What is the mechanism? What happened to air flow when you opened the valve (pneumothorax)? What eﬀect on the collapsed lung in the left side of the glass bell jar did you observe when you closed the valve?

- surface tension = liquid molecules more attracted to each other than to gas molecules - resists increase in SA so decreases spaces such as in the alveoli - surfactant decreases tension by reducing attraction of water molec to each other - tendency of lung to recoil because of its elasticity and surface tension - tendency of compressed chest wall to recoil and expand outward - pneumothorax - atelectasis - adding surfactants decreased surface tension, which increased air flow - surfactants allowed the alveoli to carry out gas exchange better by increasing the SA - airflow decreased by half (still have another lung) - The lung didn't re-inﬂate because the intrapleural pressure was equal to the intrapulmonary pressure

What consists of the alimentary canal/GI tract? (6) What consists of the accessory digestive organs? (5)

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small & large intestines teeth, salivary glands, gallbladder, liver, pancreas

Where is the last place in the alimentary canal that food can be digested? Where do you start to absorb nutrients?

last place of digestion = duodenum | first place of absorption =jejunum

The small intestine mostly consists of the ___.

jejunum

What are the 2 smooth muscles surrounding the alimentary canal (muscularis externa)? What movements are they responsible for? What kind of movements are they?

longitudinal layer = peristalsis (tube squeezing pushes food down) circular layer = segmentation (squeeze back and forth)

What are the 4 layers that make up the alimentary canal (from mouth to anus)? from inside to outside. Which layer is different in each organ? Which layer has glands that secrete juice? What is the nerve plexus for? It also has ___ all over to prevent bacteria from entering

1. mucosa 2. submucosa 3. muscularis externa 4. serosa - different = epithelium of mucosa layer - glands = submucosa - nerve = automated constriction of alimentary canal - lymphatic vessels all over

When your tongue is tied, cannot eat, and start to lose weight, what do you have too much of?

lingual frenulum

What is the function of the esophagus?

carry food down from mouth to stomach

What kind of cells are in the anus and esophagus and rectum? Why? Are these tissues hard to replace? This makes them prone to ___ when you have acid reflux.

- stratified squamous because they recover from abrasions rapidly - hard to replace because need ability to recover cells and also do peristalsis/segmentation motion - prone to cancer each time replace cell destroyed by acid

The mouth has ___ epithelium and the esophagus has ___ epithelium

``` mouth = columnar, cuboidal esophagus = stratified squamous ```

What salivary enzyme in mouth first digests what food? What is the mixture formed in the mouth called?

- amylase breaks down carbs - lipase breaks down small lipids - amylase, lipase, water, food = bolus

Stomach Esophagus enters the stomach at the ___ which is around this organ ___. ___ sphincter opens when bolus enters stomach. The bottom of the stomach has ___ sphincter. The sphincters' functions are to ___. What additional muscle layer is found in the stomach? In conjunction with the longitudinal and circular layer, the 3 muscles allow for ___. The bumpy ridges of the mucosa layer are called ___. What is its function? When it straightens out near the pyloric sphincter, it is called ___. Why does it straighten? Which organic food material gets digested in the stomach? What is the liquid coming out of the stomach called?

- enters at cardia (found near apex of the heart) - esophageal sphincter at the top of stomach - pyloric sphincter at the bottom of stomach - sphincter to close off the stomach so digestion can take place - addition of oblique muscle (diagonal digestion) - all 3 muscles allow for food to be broken down in all directions - bumps = rugae that increases SA - pyloric canal, straightens to make easier to drain liquid - bolus + digested protein + HCl = chyme

Stomach What cell is on top of the stomach (at the very upper surface)? What is its function? Which cells secrete HCl and intrinsic factor? Which cells secrete pepsinogen? Is it active or inactive? What does this enzyme do? What converts pepsinogen to its active form? Which cells secrete hormones that talk to parietal cells & paracrine?

- mucous cells on top make mucous to shield the stomach from the digestive enzymes that digest proteins (because muscle is also a protein) - parietal cells = HCl + intrinsic factor - chief cells = pepsinogen - pepsinogen inactive form of pepsin that breaks down peptide bonds into aa - HCl converts pepsin to pepsinogen - enteroendocrine cells secrete hormones & paracrine

Stomach What does each cell secrete: - mucous cells - parietal cells - chief cells - enteroendocrine cell

``` mucous = mucous to shield the stomach from the digestive enzymes parietal = HCl & intrinsic factor chief = pepsinogen enteroendocrine = hormones & paracrine ```

What cells make up the stomach epithelium?

simple columnar

Small intestines have ___ to make even more efficient for liquid to move by increasing SA (in addition to villi and microvilli)?

circular folds

What is the difference between gastric pits and intestinal crypts?

gastrict pits = in stomach | intestinal crypts = small intestine

The difference between rugae and vili is that ___. Where are they found? What type of cell is found in both epithelium? The function of both is to ___.

- villi has brush border enzymes/microvilli - rugae = stomach - villi = small intestine - both simple columnar epi - function to increase SA for digestion/absorption

Vili is filled with ___. (3)

submucosa, lacteals, blood vessels

What is the function of the colon? Which 4 colons do they include? What happens when food moves too fast? too slow?

absorb water back from digestion so do not dehydrate while digesting food - ascending, descending, transverse, sigmoid - fast = diarrhea - slow = constipation

The large intestine consists of these 5 subdivisions.

cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, anal canal

What is the function of the cecum? Does it do well?

digest cellulose not very well because so small

What is the function of the appendix?

store good bacteria for gut flora

What is the mesentary? Is it an organ?

CT that holds the intestines in place, yes!

True or False appendix counts as a part of the alimentary canal

true

___ composes the bulk of the tooth and is the bonelike material.

dentin

What are the 2 types of chyme? When the pyloric sphincter opens, how do the 2 types move into the duodenum? What connects the liver and pancreas? Which organ makes bile salts (which is made from what?) What is its function? What organ stores bile? Why? What does the pancreas make? (4)

- liquid & fatty - liquid pours into duodenum, fatty drips down - hepatopancreatic sphincter connects liver and pancreas - liver makes bile salt made from RBC, that break down fats - bile stored in gallbladder because connected to hormones made by stomach that tells we need more bile - pancreas makes lipase, amylase, nuclease, protease

Can we live without gallbladder? Liver?

gallbladder yes, liver no

Digestion last occurs at this organ, with the helps of these enzymes from these organs (2).

in the duodenum from enzymes from pancreas and gallbladder

What is the structural unit of liver? What flows through the central vein? What makes the portal triad of the liver?

- unit = lobule made of hepatocytes - central vein where detoxified blood takes to the hepatic portal vein and into the vena cava - portal venuole (bring nutrient-rich blood), portal arteriole (supplies O2), bile duct (function to supply oxygen and nutrients)

What is the function of the periodontal ligament of the teeth?

hold tooth in socket

Identify the organ. What are the white circles? The lines in the circles?