Language Production

Question 1

what is not a prosodic cue?

Answer 1

frequency

Question 1

the garden path model of parsing ncan be described as:

Answer 1

a two-stage, serial processing model

Question 2

what is not a type of inference?

Answer 2

embellishment

Question 3

is speech production effortless?

Answer 3

○ 2-3 words per second (~150 words per minute)
○ Probably not as effortless as we think it is.
* Use strategies to reduce processing demands when planning speech:
○ Deciding what we are going to say before we say it
§ Cognitively demanding

Question 4

what is preformulation?

Answer 4

production of phrases used before A piece of cake/ Under the weather
§ Go to well used phrases (generically understood) to make speech production easier
Consensus in understanding

Question 5

what is under specification?

Answer 5

use of simplified expressions …or something/ …and things like that
§ Simplified expressions that make understanding speech easier.
Attached to sentences to simplify what we are saying.

Question 6

how does intoxication infliuence language?

Answer 6

• Reveals complexities of speech production
  ○ Requires effort.
  ○ Impairs attention, memory, thinking and reasoning
  ○ Produce more dysfluencies (e.g. stammering, stuttering) (1)
  ○ Slower speaking rate (1)
  ○ Reduction in richness and creativity (2)
  (1) Hollien et al (2001); (2) Reichel & Kisler (2002)

Question 7

what is speech planning?

Answer 7

• First stage of speech production
  
  • Might occur at different levels
    ○ Clause
    § Part of the sentence containing a subject and a verb
    □ The dog (subject) is sleeping (verb)…
    ○ Phrase
    § A group of words that express a single idea
    □ …on the bed

Question 8

what is a clause level speech production?

Answer 8

Speech errors provide evidence that speech planning extends over the entire clause
We have to have planned the sentences before we say it- suggests that speech planning may not only occur at clause level

Question 9

what is phrase level speech production?

Answer 9

Describe moving pictures
has two differing conditions

Question 10

what are the 2 different levels of phrase level speech production?

Answer 10

Simple initial noun phrase
§ The tie moves above the candle and the foot
§ One noun at the start of the phrase
2. Conjoined initial noun phrase
§ The tie and the candle move above the foot
§ Two nouns at the start of the phrase.
* Simple initial noun phrase
○ The tie moves above the candle and the shoe
* Conjoined initial noun phrase
○ The tie and the candle move above the shoe
Martin et al (2004)

Question 11

what did Martin et al (2004) into phrase level processing find?

Answer 11

1. Simple initial noun phrase
   ○ The tie moves above the candle and the foot
   
   2. Conjoined initial noun phrase
      ○ The tie and the candle move above the foot
      * Took longer (~77ms) to initiate conjoined phrase
      At phrase level when speech becomes more complicated (more nouns in sentence) it takes us longer to produce (and plan) the sentence

Question 12

what are speech errors?

Answer 12

• Generally accurate when speaking, but sometimes prone to error
  
  • Majority of errors are not random, but systematic
    ○ Don’t happen at random
    ○ Specific speech errors that we can make
  • Provide insight into how cognitive systems work
    What happens when we plan and produce speech

Question 13

what is word exchange? give an example

Answer 13

Speech planning extends over the entire clause
- My chair seems empty without my room

Question 14

what is sound (phoneme) exchange? give an example.

Answer 14

Sounds of words planned shortly in advance
Sounds have switched (sound exchange)
- bedbugs to budbegs

Question 15

what is spoonerism? give an example.

Answer 15

Initial letter of two words are switched
First letter of two words are switched
- saying “go and shake a tower” instead of “go and take a shower”

Question 16

what is semantic substitution? give an example.

Answer 16

○ Word replaced by another with similar meaning (semantically similar)
§ Where is my cricket bat?
Where is my cricket racket?

Question 17

what is morpheme exchange? give an example

Answer 17

○ Inflexions (first few letter in a word) /suffixes (last few letters in a word) attached to wrong words
○ Groups of letters are swapped.
§ He has already trunked two packs

Question 18

what is number agreement? give an example.

Answer 18

○ The team has won the match
○ Collective noun is singular, but… The team have won the match …resembles plural noun
Word attached to a plural can be incorrect.

Question 19

what tupe of error is: “i saw you fight a liar”

Answer 19

spoonerism

Question 20

what type of error is: “knife light”

Answer 20

sound exchange

Question 21

what type of error is: “i must let the house out of the cat”

Answer 21

word exchange

Question 22

what type of error is: :she has already paired two soles”

Answer 22

morpheme exchange

Question 23

what type of error is: “the government have made a mess of things”

Answer 23

number agreement

Question 24

what type of error is: "he used the ladle to flip the pancakes"

Answer 24

semantic substitution

Question 25

what are the two major theories of speech production?

Answer 25

1. Spreading- activation theory (Dell, 1986) ○ Processing occurs in parallel at different levels (semantic, lexical, phonological) 2. WEAVER ++ model (Levelt et al, 1999) Each processing stage occurs in seriation

Question 26

what is the spreading activation theory?

Answer 26

* Categorical rules ○ Impose constraints on items/categories that are acceptable at each level * Insertion rules ○ Select items to be spoken Most highly activated nodes selected- To produce the speech

Question 27

what are the key strengths of the spreading activation theory:

Answer 27

* Key strength = levels of processing interact ○ Can account for several speech production errors ○ Link between speech production and other cognitive activities (e.g. word recognition) ○ Tapping into other aspects of cognitive activities as well. * Extent interactive processes involved in speech production unclear ○ Occur less when processing demands high- the interactive process (maybe aren't as synced/ happen as fluidly) Don’t know the full extent of how they interact to produce speech

Question 28

what is the weaver++ model of speech production?

Answer 28

* Word-form Encoding by Activation VERification ○ Feed-forward activation in serial fashion ○ Happens in a serial fashion * Three main levels 1. Highest level: nodes representing lexical concepts (tapping into lexicon, initially- bank of words in brain) 2. Second level: nodes representing lemmas (Abstract words with syntactic/semantic features only) ○ Grammatical and semantic features- abstract words 3. Lowest level: nodes representing word forms (morphemes, letters/phonemes, sounds) Produce speech by looking at the letters and sounds together

Question 29

what does the weaver++ model explain?

Answer 29

tip-of-the tounge state- semantic activation but phonological processing unsuccessful and shows how speech production proceeds from meaning to sound

Question 30

what are the strengths of the weaver++ model of speech production?

Answer 30

○ Shift focus from speech errors and toward precise timing of production processes § Indication of what actually happens (STEP-BY-STEP) ○ Simple model that can make testable predictions Can test different stages to see how speech is produced.

Question 31

what are the weaknesses of the weaver++ model?

Answer 31

○ Does not allow interaction between different levels § Could unlock semantic and sounding of words at the same time ○ Speech errors occur more than model predicts Doesn’t account for all the speech errors we can produce.

Question 32

what is neuropsychology?

Answer 32

* Study of patients with Aphasia in 19th century ○ Due to stroke, brain tumour, injury, infection, etc. ○ Impairments of language comprehension/production * Early research made distinction between two types of aphasia Broca’s aphasia - centralised to front of the brain Wernicke’s aphasia - centralised to the back of the brain

Question 33

what is broca's aphasia?

Answer 33

* Slow, non-fluent speech * Poor ability to produce syntactically correct sentences ○ Grammatically correct sentences * Comprehension relatively intact- understanding of speech intact ➢Problems with speech production

Question 34

what is wernicke's aphasia?

Answer 34

* Also known as fluent or receptive aphasia * Fluent and grammatical speech- syntactic structure of producing sentences is fluent * Speech often lacks meaning ➢Problems with speech comprehension

Question 35

what are the limiatations of only neuropsychology only looking at wernicke's and broca's aphasia?

Answer 35

* Some truth in distinction (between Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia), but over simplification ○ Same form of aphasia, but different impairments § People have different symptoms of the same disease. ○ Several different areas involved in language processing § More than just what is originally identified- lots of the brain is involved. ○ Patients with Broca’s aphasia have damage to Wernicke’s area (and vice versa!) § Not localised to one area ○ Patients also have more general problems (attention/memory) Not restrictive to language comprehension/speech production

Question 36

what are the 3 specific cognitive impairments neuropsychology focuses on?

Answer 36

1. anomia 2. agrammatism 3. jargon aphasia

Question 37

what is anomia?

Answer 37

* Experienced by all aphasics * Impaired ability to name everyday objects ○ Problems with word retrieval ○ No problem with comprehension § Can understand a word even though you can't identify it. ► Problems at phonological level Speech is grammatically correct but cant identify an object

Question 38

what is agrammatism?

Answer 38

* Difficulties producing grammatically correct sentences ○ Short sentences with content words (nouns/verbs) § Can pinpoint them and identify/ say what they are ○ remove function words (the, and, in) and word endings ► Problems at lexical (syntax/grammar) levels ○ Can identify names of objects but cant provide the grammatical structure of sentences

Question 39

what is jargon aphasia?

Answer 39

* Speech grammatically correct but have difficulties accessing correct words ○ Substitute one word for another § Word substitutions make it not make sense ○ Produce neologisms (made-up-words) ► Problems at phonological level ○ Speech is grammatically correct but cant identify the correct words for the sentence. Trouble understanding sounds of words to produce the correct one.

Question 40

what is the goal of laguage production?

Answer 40

communication

Question 41

what ar ethe 3 main ways in hwich we communicate?

Answer 41

1. linguistics 2. motivation 3. social

Question 42

how is speech a form of communication?

Answer 42

* Speech nearly always occurs in a social context * Importance of audience design ○ Need to take into account and tailor to the needs of listener(s) ○ Understand who our audience is. Key to how we communicate in different contexts.

Question 43

what is common ground?

Answer 43

* Shared knowledge between speaker/listener ○ Work together to ensure mutual understanding ○ Both understand what is being said : e.g.: sarcasm, etc. * Speaker makes assumptions about the listener ○ Global: preferred language, general knowledge, shared experiences ○ Local: attending to at a given moment § Environmental factors, pay more attention/ annunciate words more

Question 44

how is common ground cognitively demanding?

Answer 44

○ Difficult for speakers to focus on listeners perspective while also planning what to say next ○ High cognitive demand * Often plan what to say without considering listeners perspective Not responded effectively.

Question 45

what are the 4 comonents of common ground?

Answer 45

1. syntactic priming 2. gestures 3. prosodic cues 4. discourse markers

Question 46

what is sytactic priming?

Answer 46

○ Speaker copies words, phrases heard previously ○ Other person speaking serves as a prime/prompt e.g.: mirror a passive snertence if you hear a passive sentence

Question 47

what are gestures?

Answer 47

* Assumed to increase ability to communicate with listener ○ Listeners find it easier to understand ○ Communicates visually what is going on. * Also makes it easier to work-out what to say ○ Use gestures even when we cant see speaker E.g.: talk with hands

Question 48

what did horbury and Guttentag (1998) find about gestures in speech?

Answer 48

gave participants teh definitions of uncommon words, they had to provide word for definition. when they couldnt use their hands, they produced fewer words (22%)

Question 49

what are prosodic cues?

Answer 49

* How words are uttered ○ Rhythm, stress (accent), intonation (rise and fall of speech), etc. More likely to be provided when meaning is ambiguous - e.g.: the old men and women sat on the bench

Question 50

what are discourse markers?

Answer 50

* Words/phrases that are not directly relevant to the speaker’s message * Speaker experiencing problems deciding what to say (Um... Er… Like…) ○ Trouble with speech production Speaker checking that listener understands (… you know?)