1
Q
What is the function of learning?
A
Learning helps us to adapt to changing conditions in the world. Adaptation is the process of changing behaviour to fit changed environmental conditions.
Being taught how to do a task, and then improving on that task
2
Q
What are the costs of learning?
A
- delayed reproductive effort or success
- increased juvenile vulnerability
- increased parental investment in young
- learning requires a much greater complexity in nervous system - requires high energy costs to maintain and serve nerve tissue
- developmental fallibility (trial + error vs instinct)
3
Q
Types of learning include:
A
- -> noticing and ignoring: need to notice important events but learn to ignore events that occur repeatedly without consequence (sensitisation and habituation)
- -> learning what events signal: need to learn when something is about to happen so that we can prepare for it (classical conditioning)
- -> learning about the consequences of behaviour: need to learn the results of our behaviours to avoid making mistakes and repeat behaviours that produce positive outcomes; learn when and how to act (operant conditioning)
- -> learning from others: need to learn from the results of the behaviours of others as well (observational learning)
4
Q
Define learning
A
- a relatively permanent change in behavioural potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice
- the ability to assess the consequences of one’s actions is fundamental to survival
- motivation is necessary for learning behaviour to be performed
- learning cannot be observed directly - it is inferred from observed behaviour
- conditioning: a process of learning associations between environmental stimuli and behavioural responses
- what it is not: referring to instincts or reflexes or changes in behaviour due to fatigue / drugs
5
Q
what is associative learning?
A
result of learning to associate one stimulus with another (example: sound of keys jangling signifies that the dog’s owner is leaving)
6
Q
what is non-associative learning
A
- learning that results from the impact of one particular stimulus
- habituation: response wanes with repeated exposure (i.e. decline in the tendency to respond to an event that has become familiar)
- sensitisation: occurs when our response to an event increases rather than decreases with repeated exposure
7
Q
What is classical conditioning? How it is an associative type of learning?
A
- we learn by association
- i.e. learning that 2 events occur together
- classical conditioning: we learn to associate two environmental events with each other so that we can predict / expect the 2nd event to occur after we have perceived the first event
(whereas operant conditioning is learning to associate a response that we make with its consequence)
8
Q
Elaborate on Pavlov’s Dogs
A
- dogs learned to salivate in response to a bell after it was paired with food
- learn that the stimulus predicts the occurrence of a certain event and we respond accordingly
- Before conditioning: food (US) automatically elicits salivation (UR) and the bell (CS) has no response
- During conditioning: the bell (CS) followed by the food (US) elicits a response of salivation (UR)
- After conditioning: the bell (conditioned stimulus) elicits the salivation (CR) without the food being present
9
Q
Define NS, US, UR, CS, CR
A
neutral stimulus: the stimulus that, before conditioning, doesn’t naturally bring about the response of interest
unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that elicits / triggers an unconditioned (involuntary) response
unconditioned response: an unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus occurring without prior conditioning
conditioned stimulus: previously NS that through repeated pairings with an US, now causes a CR
conditioned response: learned reaction to a CS occurring because of previous repeated pairings
10
Q
what is acquisition?
A
the formation of a learned response to stimulus through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus
11
Q
what is extinction?
A
elimination of a learned response by removal of the unconditioned stimulus
the CR would weaken when the CS is presented without the US
not the unlearning of the CR, but a learned inhibition of responding
spontaneous recovery = the re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response (this occurs after a period of time, in the absence of any more presentations of either the CS or the US)
12
Q
acquisition of phobias by classical conditioning
A
- the conditioning of Little Albert to fear a white laboratory rat by making a loud clanging noise (US) every time he reached for the rat
13
Q
what is stimulus generalisation
A
A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical to a conditioned stimulus (Albert was fearful of a rabbit, seal-fur coat, santa claus mask, etc)
14
Q
what is stimulus discrimination
A
the learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli
15
Q
higher order conditioning: first ordre
A
CS1 –> US
CS1 –> CR
16
Q
Higher order conditioning: second order
A
CS2 –> CS1
CS2 –> CR
17
Q
elaborate on higher order conditioning
A
two factors determine the extent:
- the similarity between the higher order stimulus and the original conditioned stimulus
- the frequency and consistency with which the two conditioned stimuli are paired
18
Q
What does a CS need to elicit a CR?
A
- not just close proximity of the two events in time
- CS must be a predictor of the arrival of the US
- predictions are indicative of the organism being able to recognise the likelihood of the US (after a CS) –> cognitive element
19
Q
Cognitive elements
A
- classical conditioning only occurs when an animal has learned to set up an expectation
- conditioning is easier when the CS is an unfamiliear event than a familiar one (no existing expectations)
20
Q
What are two theories about how the conditioned response form?
A
- contiguity theory
- contingency theory
21
Q
What is contiguity theory:
A
- theorises that when two stimuli are presented together in time, associations are formed between the two
- temporally contiguous events tend to be associated together (therefore merely put two stimuli together in time to create a conditioned response)
- this explains most of the data, and why it is weakened by a delay between CS and US, but there are limitations
22
Q
What is Rescorla’s contingency theory?
A
1960s
- agreed with Pavlov that for learning to take place, the CS had to be a useful predictor of the US
- disagreed on what made the CS a useful predictor
- contingency: the relationship between two events, one being “contingent” or a consequence of the other event
- -> the occurence of a future event is possible, given that one event has occurred, but cannot always be predicted with certainty
- how does the CR form?
- -> relies heavily on predictability and expectation and repetition
23
Q
What does contingency depend on?
A
- reliability of the CS-US pairing
- uniqueness of the CS-US pairing (how often does the US happen without the CS?)
24
Q
What is excitatory conditioning?
A
- relative likelihood of something occurring given that something else did
25
What is inhibitory conditioning
relative likelihood of something NOT occurring that something else did
26
What affects the acquisition of the Conditioned Response? (in addition to contiguity and contingency)
Sequence of the CS-US presentation: delayed conditioning, trace conditioning, simultaneous conditioning, backward conditioning)
Strength of the US (the larger the US value, the greater the conditioning)
Number of the CS-US pairings
27
Opponent Process Model of Motivation arising from CC process (solomen + corbit)
• Emotion arousing stimuli will produce emotional responses
• Common pattern of emotional changes
• The concepts of habituation and sensitisation have been extended to emotions and motivated behaviour
• Emotional after-reaction → an emotional stimulus creates an initial response that is followed by adaptation, then opposite response
• With repeated exposure to the stimulus, the pattern changes
○ The primary affective response (a-process) habituates
○ The after-reaction (b-process) strengthens
28
Opponent Process Model of Motivation arising from CC process: Common Characteristics of Emotional Reactions
Emotional reactions are biphasic; a primary reaction is followed by an opposite after-reaction
The primary reaction becomes weaker with repeated stimulations
The after reaction is strengthened
The opponent-process theory is homeostatic
The theory assumes that neurophysiological mechanisms involved in emotional behaviour serve to maintain emotional stability
29
Solomon and Corbit - opponent process theory
• Examined fear and relief of skydivers before and after their jumps
• Beginners experience extreme fear as they jump, which is replaced by great relief when they land
○ With repeated jumps, the fear decreases and the post-jump pleasure increases
• Stage A (fear) decreases with more jumps
• Stage B (relief / thrill) increases with more jumps
• Hedonic-affective phenomena
Solomon (1980)
• An event that elicits a strong emotional response produces an opposite response when that event is withdrawn
• Opponent process theory: an emotional event elicits two competing responses
○ A-process: directly elicited by the stimulus
○ B-process: compensatory response to counteract the a-process → elicited to maintain homeostasis
• After many stimulations - the peak of a reduces and the peak of b gets steeper
30
Overview of the opponent process:
• Disturb homeostasis (A process)
• Compensatory response (B process)
• Back to baseline (set point)
• Observed response (A process + B process)
• Therefore, the CR is opposite to UR (heterogenous - its not the same for everyone)
Environmental cues become CS (anticipatory response can start earlier over time with conditioning)
31
Characteristics of a-processes and b-processes in opponent-process theory of emotion
1. a-process is directly related to the presentation of the emotional stimulus (stimulus removal = a-process ceases immediately)
2. b-process is slow to increase and slow to decrease (b-process begins after a-process, once stimulus is removed the b-process slowly declines)
3. with repeated presentation of the emotional event, the b-process increases in strength and duration
- with repeated exposure to the emotional stimulus effects of a-process become less extreme and this is because b-process becomes more extreme
32
opponent process theory - drug addiction
- Physiological and psychological reactions to the drug directly relate to the a- and b-processes
- Drug effect = net effect of a-process minus b-process
- Repeated experience with drug results in less of a ‘high’ (a-process), but withdrawal symptoms are stronger and last longer (b-process)
- Withdrawal is so bad that re-dosing with the drug occurs
- Addiction - person takes the drug to avoid the symptoms of withdrawal
33
opponent process theory - thrill seeking behaviours
Stage A - euphoric rush
Stage B - decrease in euphoria, coming down form a high
Stage A’ - after repeated exposures, A’ becomes normal, there is no longer a rush, drug is needed for normalcy
Stage B’ - more physiologcially disturbing and longer lasting; abstinence agony
negative cycle
34
Siegel's theory of drug tolerance
* Over time the compensatory response gets larger - thus more of the drug is required to achieve euphoria
* Context matters however → if your change the context (i.e. the environment in which you are taking drugs), you are able to change the scale of the high from the drug
* With repeated exposure, b-process becomes stronger and lasts longer → but changing the context makes the drug more effective
35
Instrumental learning or operant conditioning is
learning that occurs from possible consequences of our actions
major players include Thorndike and Skinner
36
Thorndike's law of effect
- learning caused by consequences
- behaviours that had a satisfying effect were stamped in and behaviours that had an annoying effect were stamped out
- the probability of an action repeated is strengthened when it is followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence
- studied cats in puzzle boxes
37
Skinner's theory
the consequences of behaviour determine the probability that the behaviour will occur again
emphasised that reinforcement and punishment are always defined after the fact
radical behaviourism = the factor controlling an organism's behaviour was the consequence of the behaviour
no need to hypothesise internal processes
reinforcement contingencies: contingencies reflect conditions that must be met in order for reinforcement to be dispensed (the reinforcement must be meaningful to the organism and must follow the behaviour)
38
How is operant conditioning different to classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning: key relationship between the 2 stimuli (food and light) which leads to a response (key relationship between the 2 stimuli which leads to a response)
Operant conditioning: stimulus occurs (light) and then a key relationship between the response and the reinforcer (pulling a lever and then receiving food) (stimulus, than a key relationship between the response and reinforcer)
39
The consequence of responding in operant conditioning
consequence: where there is a contingent relationship between a behaviour and an event, a consequence is an event that is caused by a behaviour including (the presentation or removal of a stimulus)
40
different types of stimulus events include
pleasant, unpleasant, neutral, positive (event added into situation), negative (event removed from situation)
41
Two types of effects of behaviour consequence relationships on behaviour include
reinforcement: causes the response to increase in frequency
punishment: causes the response to decrease in frequency
42
Positive reinforcement =
an appetitive stimulus is added
43
Positive Punishment
an aversive stimulus is added
44
negative punishment
an appetitive stimulus is removed
45
negative reinforcement
an aversive stimulus is removed
46
What is S+
a controlling stimulus that sets the occasion for reinforcement of an operant - responding in presence of S+ will get the outcome that is seeked
47
what is S-
responding in presence of S- will not get the outcome that is seeked
48
variables the effect operant conditioning
- magnitude of reinforcer (size of reward)
- delay of reward (the greater the delay, the weaker the learning)
- frequency of reinforcement
- -> continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs -> this has problems of habituations
- -> intermittent reinforcement: periodic administration of the reinforcement (maintains behaviours with fewer reinforcement trials but results in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction)
- schedule of reinforcement
- -> ratio schedules (fixed ratio, variable ratio)
- -> interval schedules (fixed interval, variable interval)
49
Premack's Principle
using a desired or high freq behaviour to reinforce a less desirable or lower freq behaviour
50
Issues of punishment
- Punishment does not usually result in long term behaviour change - effects are temporary
- Punishment does not promote better, alternative behaviour
- Punishment typically leads to escape behaviour
- Learner may layer to fear the administrator ratehr than the association between their behaviour and the punishment
- Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behaviour - unless it is delivered every time
- Punitive aggression may lead to modelling of aggression
- Learned helplessness
51
Observational learning (Bandura)
- learning by watching other models or demonstrators
- how we acquire new information by being exposed to one another in a common environment
- proposes that we learn through imitation, and explains the speed of learning in young children
Key features of the model = appropriateness and similarity
52
how to learn by observational learning?
- attention
- retention
- reproduction
- motivation
PSYU1101
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