Define ‘learning’
- Is any enduring change in either in our potential to behave differently or our knowledge that results from experience
Deconstruct the 3 statements of learning
- Learning occurs as a response to experience
- Learning can be measured by an individual’s ability to demonstrate new knowledge or change in behaviour
- Learning typically takes a long time
How does classical conditioning operate? Give example.
Operates via the repeated pairing of stimulus together in order to for an association to be learned
For instance, the first stage occurs in a neutral environment, where an environmental/neutral stimulus stimulates a neutral response. For instance, a dog gets happy when it is time to go for a walk. Here the neutral stimulus is going for a walk, and the neutral response is the dog being happy. With the introduction of a new conditioned stimulus the dog can be deliberately conditioned to get happy even when the neutral stimulus is removed from the equation. For instance, the owner can repeatedly wear a red coat every time it is time for a walk. The consistent/repeated exposure to the red coat will lead to the dog to associate the red coat as an indication that it is time for a walk. Thus, the dog will be happy. In order for this to be successful, the unconditioned stimulus is removed, however, the dog must be able to get happy at solely the sight of the red coat. . The conditioned response (putting on a red coat), overtime, leads to the dog being happy (conditioned response).
- Environmental stimulus neutral response
- Unconditioned stimulus + conditioned stimulus neutral response
Step 2 is repeated several times and overtime - Conditioned stimulus conditioned response
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING PROCESS
Acquisition:
Extinction:
Spontaneous recovery:
Stimulus discrimination:
Acquisition: beginning of learning – the period at which the stimulus is being introduced
Extinction: the conditioned stimulus no longer stimulates the conditioned response; this occurs due to the conditioned stimulus being repeated several times without the unconditioned stimulus
Spontaneous recovery: the conditioned stimulus produces the conditioned response after extinction
Stimulus discrimination: stimulus with similar characteristics does not produce the conditioned response
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING TERMINOLOGY
Describe the following with examples:
Contiguity:
Contingency:
Contiguity: the introduction of the stimulus is close to the time being conditioned (lighting and thunder)
Contingency: the introduction of either the conditioned stimulus or unconditioned stimulus is perceived to be in response to the other (individual breaks their mirror early in the day, shortly after something bad happens to them, they associate the broken mirror as a token for bad luck)
What does this operant conditioning operate on?
- operates on the concept that animals and humans learn (change behaviour and attitude) as a response to punishments and reinforcements
Define the following;
Operant behaviour:
Operant response:
Reinforcements:
Punishments:
Operant behaviour: identified behaviour to be reinforced or punished in order to be modified and changed
Operant response: every time the individual performs the operant behaviour, they are either punished or reinforced
Reinforcements: factors that increase the likelihood of repeating operant behaviour
Punishments: factors that decrease the likelihood of repeating operant behaviour
Explain why in attempts to change one’s behaviour, reinforcements are favoured over punishments (2 marks)
Punishments are affective at suppressing/weakening undesired behaviours. However, they do not replace operant behaviour (undesired behaviour) with desired behaviour, further conditioning is needed to strengthen desired behaviour. Severe punishments can lead to distress.
These are two types of reinforcers. Name and describe them:
Primary – biological reinforcers, such as sex, food, water, avoidance of pain
Secondary – reinforcers raising from association, such as rewards, money
Describe the following in terms of operant conditioning:
Contiguity:
Contingency:
Contiguity: the introduction of the operant response (reinforcement or punishment) is close in time with when the operant behaviour is performed
Contingency: the introduction of the punishment/reinforcement is perceived to be in response the operant behaviour
Describe behavioural shaping:
Behaviour shaping involves implementing several ‘stages’ or/and ‘rounds’ in order to progressively produce the target operant behaviour. For instance, in order to teach a pigeon how to press a button, the pigeon must first be taught how to peck, then pecking on wall, and then reinforce pecking on button only.
Define biological preparedness:
- is the concept that some species (humans and animals) tend to be more inclined to associate a particular behaviour with a particular response
- this affects the species’ receptiveness to operant conditioning
- for instance, it is easier to teach a dog how to fetch than a cat
What premise does observational learning operate on?
- Operates on the premise that individuals (humans and animals) learn from observing the behaviour and action of others
TERMINOLOGY
Learner:
Model:
Modelled behaviour:
Reproduction:
Learner: individuals observing behaviour
Model: individual performing behaviour
Modelled behaviour: behaviour being performed by model/ observed by learner
Reproduction: individual acts on the observation, by behaving in a similar way to the modelled behaviour
Describe various learning with an example
- Learner (individual observing modelled behaviour) observes the model receiving reinforcements when they perform a particular behaviour
- Individual sees that a girl posts a selfie of them at a party, it receives tons of likes. The individual retains and creates mental representations of observed behaviour. Next time at a party, the individual takes pics and posts them with the aim of receiving the same reinforcements as their friend (model).
FACTORS AFFECTING OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Authority:
Status:
Similarity:
Confidence:
Ambiguity:
Authority: increases observational learning, the production of the modelled behaviour
Status: we are more likely to reproduce modelled behaviour from individuals we view as admirable, attractive and respectful
Similarity: we tend to tend to adopt and reproduce similar behaviour from individuals we perceive to be similar to ourselves e.g., similar hobbies, interests etc.
Confidence: increases reproduction of modelled behaviour as individual lacks confidence in their ability
Ambiguity: when stimulus are confusing/unclear
What is the application of learning theory?
- Can be used in psychology to improve individuals’ bad experiences
- Can help improve learning practices
Define maladaptive behaviour
- Learnt behaviours that bad, harmful, detrimental or impair development
- E.g., nail biting, aggression/anger,
