Learning and Memory

Question 1

Describe classical (Pavlovian) conditioning.

Give an example of an experiment that used classical (Pavlovian) conditioning.

Answer 1

Learning by association. For example:

• A neutral stimulus (causing no response) occurs at the same time as an unconditioned stimulus (one that naturally causes an unconditioned response).
• With repetition, the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned response.
• The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus as it elicits the same unconditioned response on its own.
• E.g. Pavlov’s dog and Little Albert.

Question 2

Describe operant (instrumental) conditioning.

Answer 2

Learning by association. For example:

• When a particular behaviour occurs, the behaviour is either reinforced (to increase / maintain the behaviour) or punished (to decrease the behaviour).
• If the reinforcement / punishment is positive, it involves adding a pleasant / aversive stimulus.
• If the reinforcement / punishment is negative, it involves removing a pleasant / aversive stimulus.
• E.g. Skinner experiments with cats (negative) and birds (positive).

Question 3

What is the key similarity or difference between the operant and classical conditioning?

Answer 3

• They are similar in that they are both forms of associative learning.
• They differ in that classical (Pavlovian) conditioning creates stimulus-stimulus associations, whereas operant (instrumental) conditioning creates response-outcome associations.

Question 4

Describe social (observational) learning.

Give an example of an experiment that used social (observational) learning.

Answer 4

• Learning by watching other people’s behaviour and its consequences.
• Learning occurs by imitation.
• E.g. bobo doll experiments.

Question 5

Which neurones form the neurological basis for observational learning?

How do these neurones work?

Where are these neurones located?

Answer 5

• Mirror neurones.
• These neurones are the same neurones that fire when a behaviour is observed as when an individual performs the behaviour.
• They are mostly in the frontal and parietal cortices.

Question 6

List the three stages of memory.

Answer 6

1 - Encoding.

2 - Storage.

3 - Retrieval.

Question 7

Outline a model of memory.

Answer 7

1 - External stimulus.

2 - Sensory memory.

3 - Short-term memory.

4 - Long-term memory.

Question 8

List 4 characteristics of short-term memory.

Answer 8

1 - Limited capacity (7+/-2 items).

2 - Short duration.

3 - Maintenance occurs via rehearsal.

4 - Forgetting occurs via displacement (a consequence of limited capacity).

Question 9

List 4 characteristics of long-term memory.

Answer 9

1 - Unlimited capacity.

2 - Variable duration.

3 - Forgetting occurs via interference and / or decay (use it or lose it).

4 - Cues and context aid retrieval of information stored in the long-term memory.

Question 10

List the 2 components of long term memory.

Answer 10

1 - Declarative memory (facts, data, events, etc.).

2 - Procedural memory (how to do things).

Question 11

List the 2 components of declarative memory.

Answer 11

1 - Episodic memory (personal experiences).

2 - Semantic memory (general factual information).

Question 12

What proportion of information do patients tend to remember after a consultation?

Answer 12

~50%.

Question 13

List 2 factors that decrease the likelihood of a patient remembering information following a consultation.

Answer 13

1 - Anxiety.

2 - Old age.

Question 14

List 4 causes of memory impairment.

Answer 14

1 - Diffuse brain diseases.

2 - Focal brain diseases.

3 - Physiological disturbances.

4 - Psychiatric illnesses.

Question 15

Give an example of a diffuse brain disease that causes memory impairment.

Answer 15

Dementia.

Question 16

Give an example of a focal brain disease that causes memory impairment.

Answer 16

Amnesia.

Question 17

List 4 psychiatric illnesses that cause memory impairment.

Answer 17

1 - Schizophrenia.

2 - Depression.

3 - Anxiety.

4 - Dissociative disorders.

Question 18

List the 2 types of amnesia.

What is the difference between the 2 types?

Answer 18

1 - Retrograde amnesia.

2 - Anterograde amnesia.

• Retrograde amnesia is where memory of events prior to brain damage is impaired.
• Anterograde amnesia is where memory of events after brain damage occurs is impaired.

Question 19

List 8 structures of the brain that play a role in memory.

Answer 19

1 - Mediodorsal nucleus.

2 - Basal forebrain.

3 - Prefrontal cortex.

4 - Amygdala.

5 - Rhinal cortex.

6 - Hippocampus.

7 - Inferotemporal cortex.

8 - Cerebellum.

Question 20

Where is the rhinal cortex?

Answer 20

On the medial surface of the temporal lobe.

Question 21

Describe the case of Henry Molaison.

Answer 21

• Underwent an experimental operation on his brain to cure his epilepsy.
• During the surgery, the hippocampus was removed.
• He then woke up with anterograde amnesia.

Question 22

List 3 symptoms of anterograde amnesia.

Answer 22

1 - Difficulty learning new information.

2 - Disorientation.

3 - Confusion.