Law of exercise
- This law states that those things most often repeated are best remembered.
- It is the basis of drill and practice
- By rehearsing (or exercising) the stimulus-response connections help strengthen and reinforce the correct skill
- If the correct response is practiced regularly and with the correct technique this will enhance performance
- In learning, the more frequently a stimulus and response are associated with each other the more likely the particular response is to follow the stimulus - trial and error.
- Through repetitive practice the lesson is strengthened. When we discontinue the practice the lesson is weakened.
- The law of exercise is broken down into law of use and law of disuse
- For example, the more a discus thrower practices throwing the more likely it is that this correct throwing technique will be repeated in the competitive situation. So practice is very important.
Law of effect
- The law is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It has a direct relationship with motivation.
- This law uses reinforcement. There are satisfiers (where the desired response is rewarded by praise, reward or observed success) which will strengthen the stimulus response bond.
- If performance of the skill is satisfying to the performer (pleasant reaction) then it is more likely to be learned and remembered correctly. The satisfaction can be internal or external.
- If the following reaction is negative, then the SR bond is weakened.
- Satisfying reinforcement (ones which make the learners feel good) increases the likelihood of a response being repeated
- Annoyers (negative feedback) will weaken the response
- If rewarded there is a pleasant and satisfying feeling. So it is remembered for a long time and learning is strengthened.
- If punished there is failure, dissatisfaction and an unpleasant feeling. So progress is blocked, soon forgotten and learning is weakened.
- For example, if the thrower feels that the movement is correct then he or she is more likely to repeat the movement. A trial and error process can produce this effect, since success reinforces a response, whereas failure forces the performer to try new methods to achieve success.
Law of readiness
- This law states that the athlete must be both mentally and physically capable of performing the skill efficiently.
- Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness.
- Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready to learn and do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.
- Learning can only occur when the nervous system and muscular system is sufficiently mature to allow the appropriate S-R bond to happen.
- Learner must be responsive to act to strengthen S-R bond/ nervous system mature to learn/ mentally and physically ready to complete the task/ motivated to learn.
- If a child is ready to learn the connections to the learning is positive
- If a child is not ready to learn the connections to the learning is negative
- For example the more a thrower is physically and mentally prepared to perform a throw then it is more likely to be performed well. People should learn simple basic skills (and become basically fit) before attempting to learn more complex skills. Also the performer needs to be psychologically ready.
Thorndike’s three laws
Law of exercise
Law of effect
Law of readiness
Fitts and Posner’s three stages of learning
Cognitive stage
Associative stage
Autonomous stage
Cognitive stage
- The cognitive stage is the earliest phase (a beginner.)
- The learner attempts to understand the skill, looking at techniques and memorising what is required
- They begin to practice and repeat the skill according to a simple model, learning by trial and error - they make lots of mistakes.
- In this phase guidance would tend to be predominantly visual, with manual or mechanical guidance also being used, as basic body positions and movements are learnt. They have no kinaesthetic awareness.
- Here feedback involves reinforcement of success by the coach, with mistakes corrected by reference to the model
- To summarise this stage applies to a novice performer who requires a lot of support in order to achieve success.
Associative stage
- The associative stage is the intermediate stage
- The learner has formed the motor programme. They will understand the skill, and the movement patterns will be more fluent and established (can be repeated at a reasonable level without much thought).
- In this phase guidance is more likely to be visual and verbal with some manual guidance to illustrate specific body positions or movements. The coach will give a lot of detail within this guidance.
- Feedback involves the learner associating the ‘feel’ of the activity via kinaesthesis with the end results - mistakes will still need to be addressed, but performer will begin to tell if they have made a mistake
- To summarise this phase applies to the competent performer who still requires full support from a coach to correct mistakes.
Cognitive theory
The cognitive theory of learning is a holistic view of learning, in which the skill should be learnt in its entirety using whole-practice.
It encourages thinking and problem-solving to gain understanding and ability rather than trial and error or connecting certain responses to stimuli. Learners use previous experiences.
There are two key concepts when examining this theory:
Insight learning:
- This is using problem-solving and using the memory of effective experiences to solve a new challenge.
- For example, a badminton coach explains why a badminton player should return a serve using an overhead clear. The performer develops an insight or understanding.
Intervening variables:
- These are the mental processes involved in decision-making. For example, a coach could encourage the badminton player to think about the height of the serve and where the player is standing before deciding where to place the clear.
Cognitive theory advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
- Performer can become more independent and self-correct during a game
- They can adapt better to different situations
- They could make quick progress
- They develop kinaesthesis
Disadvantages
- They may not have any past experiences to draw on
- Learning could be slower if the performer doesn’t understand what to do and therefore might lose motivation
- Using whole practice may be problematic for a novice if the skill is too difficult or dangerous
Social learning theory
Advantages
- Cognitive factors in learning: the role of mediational processes
- Explains cultural differences in behaviour because children learn from the individuals around them
- Less determinist than behavioural approach. Bandura suggested that we choose which behaviours we perform - some free will.
Disadvantages
- Lab studies have demand characteristics
- Biological factors were underestimated because boys were more aggressive due to hormonal differences
Autonomous stage
The autonomous stage is the final stage - the performer is an expert. Movements are well-integrated and automatic. The learner is able to perform without conscious effort. The performer can give attention to the environment and wider cues about play. Guidance would not need to be extensive, but highly specific to situations which the performer would have already realised need attention. Verbal guidance would be predominant. Feedback is mostly via the performer’s ability to judge their performances and make corrections.
Visual guidance
Showing the performer what to do or how they are performing
- Useful for beginners
- Works with demonstrations or video analysis
Advantages
- Learners can see the correct model
- Can be used to highlight a weakness in more developed athletes
Disadvantages
- May be difficult to do in a large group
- Too much information may overload beginner
- If the performer cannot match the demonstration it can be demotivating
- If demonstration is inaccurate then errors may be replicated
Verbal guidance
Information that a performer can hear helps them develop
- To make guidance effective you should give it in relevant chunks
Advantages
- Can be used to explain tactics
- It can be given immediately
- Used in large groups
- Can be used as a trigger to promote the correct action during practice - while the learner is doing it
Disadvantages
- Too much information can overload beginners
- Language may be too technical for a beginner - they may not understand certain terminology
- The performer might lose concentration - can be boring
Manual guidance
Information is given to a performer to help them develop which involves them being physically moved into the correct position.
Advantages
- Help develop kinaesthetic awareness in beginners
- Eliminates danger
- Boosts confidence
- Reduces fear and anxiety
- Helps break a complex movement into parts
Disadvantages
- Requires one-to-one support - not realistic
- The performer may become too dependent on the support
- If it is used too much then it can interfere with kinaesthesis
- The proximity of the coach may be upsetting
- An incorrect feel of the skill can lead to bad habits
Positive feedback
- It is when information is given to a performer about what is good/ going well and offers motivation to maintain effort
- It is received when a movement is correctly performed and is used to reinforce an action
- It can be intrinsic or extrinsic
- Positive feedback is even more essential for beginners to motivate them to continue with the learning processes
Negative feedback
- It is information given to the performer about poor performance, as a form of criticism
- Negative feedback is received when a movement is incorrect in order to prevent the incorrect action being repeated. It can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
- Extrinsic feedback is given to reduce the chances of bad habits developing to cognitive and associative learners
- Intrinsic feedback is given to autonomous performers who may begin to detect and correct their own errors; they need to be making small, specific corrections.
- Errors can be corrected and bad habits can be eliminated
Intrinsic feedback
- Feedback received from within
- This feedback comes from within: proprioceptors and kinaesthesis, concerning the feel of the movement, they use the internal feel to know when they have performed a skill incorrectly
- This is important for autonomous learners who are at a level where they know what needs to be corrected purely by the feeling of the skill
- Cognitive performers have not developed kinaesthesia so they cannot rely on this feedback
Extrinsic feedback
Feedback received from an outside/ external source e.g a coach.
- The performer gains an understanding of what they need to improve on and/ or which aspects of the task they need to maintain.
- This type of feedback is received by seeing and hearing and is used to support intrinsic feedback
- Extrinsic athletes still receive extrinsic feedback from coaches but it will be more tactical information
Mechanical guidance
Using equipment to assist in the learning process
Advantages
- This method uses a mechanical aid
- Ensures confidence and safety
- Useful for beginners
- Kinaesthetic sense of movement
Disadvantages
- The performer can become over-reliant on the mechanical device
Concurrent feedback
Concurrent feedback occurs during a performance and has the aim of improving skills or techniques while a performer is performing.
- Best suited for autonomous or associative
- Can be intrinsic or extrinsic
Terminal feedback
This occurs after a performance has finished which is important because it strengthens the schema in learning.
- This could be the coaches summary, including reasons for success, or it could be a player looking at match statistics.
Knowledge of results
Feedback that gives an initial outcome of the attempted skill is called knowledge of results.
- This form of feedback concerns the outcome of the movement, based on results.
- Successful outcomes need to be maintained and unsuccessful ones need to be eliminated, so knowledge of results forms an early basis for improvement
- Used in cognitive performers
- It is extrinsic because it comes from purely the success level of the movement
- E.g did the netball shot score? did the pass reach the intended target?
Knowledge of performance
A more detailed analysis of the action is called knowledge of performance.
- This gives reasons why the shot went in or not and is concerned with technique and how that technique can be developed to produce a better performance than the last attempt
- Concerns the quality of the movement, based on technique; tells you why the movement was incorrect or correct.
- It can be intrinsic or extrinsic. It is important for autonomous performers as it gives more detailed information needed for an advanced player.
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PAPER 11
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Musculoskeletal system28
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Classification of joints17
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Muscular system5
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Muscle fibre types7
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Motor neurons4
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Respiratory system26
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Cardiovascular system47
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PAPER 20
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Classification of skills6
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Transfer of skills8
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Practice methods and types9
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learning theories23
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PAPER 30
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Factors influencing 20th century sport7
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Factors influency 21st century sport7
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Influence of public schools13
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NGB's and development of football4
