1
Q
Non-associative learning
A
- only seen in lower animals
- simple learning
- single events are used in learning patterns
2
Q
Habituation
A
- example of non-associative learning
- repeated stimulation leads to a reduction in response over time and the organism ‘learns’ the stimulus
- response rate overall decreases
3
Q
Sensitization
A
- increase in response to a stimulus as a result of repeated presentations of that stimulus
- overall response rate increases
- non-associative learning
4
Q
Pseudoconditioning (cross-sensitization)
A
- the emergence of a response to a previously neutral stimulas simply as a result of exposures to a different but powerful stimulus
- non-associative learning
5
Q
3 types of non-associative learning
A
- habituation
- sensitization
- pseudoconditioning
6
Q
Associative learning
A
- learning that occurs through the association of 2 events
7
Q
Classical conditioning
A
- type of associative learning
- repeated association between 2 events
- the learning organism is passive and is respondent but not instrumental (does not actively operate on its environment)
8
Q
Operant conditioning
A
- type of associative learning
- learning results as a consequence of one’s actions -‘operations’
- the learning organism actively operates on the environment
9
Q
Social learning theory
A
- type of associative learning
- combines both classic and operant models of learning and includes cognitive processes and social interaction to be relevant in human learning
10
Q
3 types of associative learning
A
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
- social learning theory
11
Q
Classical conditioning procedure
A
- produced by repeatedly pairing a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) e.g bell and an unconditioned stimuls (UCS) e.g food
- this naturally evokes an unconditioned response (UCR) e.g salivation
- eventually the neutral stimulus alone evokes the desired response
12
Q
Pavlov’s dogs
A
-example of classical conditioning
13
Q
Acquisition
A
- development of the association between he conditioned response and the unconditioned response resulting in the conditioned response
- needs an average of 3-15 pairings
- if significant emotional involvement is present then acquisition can occur with 1 pairing
14
Q
Delayed or forward conditioning
A
- the CS (bell) presented before the UCS (food)
- the CS and UCS pairing continues until the UCR (salivation) occurs
15
Q
Backward conditioning
A
- UCS (food) presented before the CS (bell)
- not useful in animals
- used in advertising
16
Q
Simultaneous conditioning
A
- UCS and CS are presented together
- often the case in real life
17
Q
Trace conditioning
A
- CS is presented and removed before the UCS is presented
- conditioning depends on the memory trace
- delay of 0.5ms is proposed to be optimum for trace conditioning
18
Q
Temporal contiguity
A
- time between stimulus and response
- Pavlov
- Rescorla showed that predictability is more important than temporal contiguity in humans
19
Q
Higher order conditioning
A
- refers to the use of an already conditioned stimulus (CS) as UCS) for the next level of conditioning and eliciting a CR for another stimulus (CS2)
- 2nd order conditioning and higher are possible but animals do not respond higher than 4th order
20
Q
Higher order conditioning example
A
- sound of box rattling illicits salivation in Sabs
- door opening ==> box rattle==> salivation
- door opening==> salivation
21
Q
Little Albert
A
- Watson and Raynor
- produced a phobia in little Albert by exposing him to a loud noise in the presence of a white rat
- became phobic of the white rat and when white furry objects seen
- showed spread of associative learning from one stimulus to another
22
Q
Stimulus generalisation
A
-spread of associative learning from one stimulus to another
23
Q
Discrimination
A
- learned responses are made only to specific stimuli and not to other similar stimuli e.g spiders but not insects
24
Q
Extinction
A
- reduction/disappearance of the learned response when the UCS-CS pairing is not available anymore
- faster extinction may mean weaker learning
- extinction does not mean loss of learning, only suppression of the behaviour response
25
Counter conditioning
-a form of classical conditioning where a previously conditioned response is replaced by a new response that may be more desirable e.g therapy
26
Spontaneous recovery
-refers to regaining a previously extinguished learned response after a period of time
27
Latent inhibition
-a delay in learning the association between UCS and CS is seen if previous exposure to an isolated presentation of CS is present
28
The law of effect
- an organism learns an appropriate behaviour after many trials because the right behaviour is followed by an appropriate desirable consequence
- demonstrated using trial and error learning experimentation originally described by Thorndike
29
Reinforcement
-a conditioning that leads to an increase in the frequency of behaviour following learning
30
Punishment
-a conditioning that leads to decrease in the frequency of behaviour following learning
31
Reinforcers
- positive- food
| - negative- electric shock
32
Punishments
- positive- points on a license for driving (given the points)
- negative- a monetary fine from parking ticket (money is taken away)
33
Primary reinforcer
-stimulus affecting biological needs
34
Secondary reinforcer
- stimulus reinforcing behaviour associated with primary reinforcers
35
Continuous reinforcement schedule
-reinforcement every time the positive response occurs
36
Partial reinforcement schedules
- only some of the positive responses result in positive reinforcement
- the reinforcement is determined by the number or responses (ratio) or time (interval)
- more resistant to extinction than continuous schedules but take longer to learn
37
Fixed interval reinforcement
- reward occurs after a specific period of time regardless of the responses
38
Variable interval reinforcement
- reward occurs after a variable amount of time regardless of the number of responses
39
Fixed ratio reinforcement
-reward occurs after a specific number of responses
40
Variable ratio reinforcement
- reward occurs after a random number of responses e.g slot machines
- most resistant to extinction
41
Fixed schedules
- pause in response is seen after reinforcement
42
Variable schedules
- constant rate of response
| - chance of reward stays the same
43
Most resistant ratio to extinction
-variable ratio
44
Contingency
-learning the probability of an event
45
Premack's principle
- Grandma's rule
- high frequency behaviours can be used to reinforce ow frequency behaviours
- if you eat your greens you can have dessert
46
Avoidance learning
- type of operant conditioning
- organism learns to avoid certain responses or situations
- very hard to extinguish
- escape conditioning is a special type- seen in phobia
47
Aversive conditioning
- operant conditioning
- punishment is used to reduce the frequency of target behaviour
- e.g using disulfriam to stop ETOH abuse
48
Covert reinforcement
- reinforcement is an imagined pleasant event rather than a material pleasure
- e.g graduation
49
Covert sensitization
- reinforcer is the imagined image of unpleasant consequences to reduce desired behaviour
- e.g failing exam
50
Flooding
- operant conditioning
| - exposed to feared stimulus for a substantial amount of time until anxiety reduces
51
Shaping
- aka successive approximation
- operant conditioning
- behaviour is learnt by successive reinforcement of behaviours closer to the desired one
- target behaviour is yet to appear
52
Chaining
- linking stages of a process together to create an entire behaviour
- can go forward or backward
53
Incubation
- emotional response increases in strength if brief but repeated exposure of the stimulus is present
- powerful in anxiety and PTSD
54
stimulus preparedness
- Seligman
- stimuli that have always been threatening to people are more hardwired into our system and so phobia develops more quickly
55
Learned helplessness
- Seligman
| - when faced with aversive stimuli from which escape is impossible, the animal stops making attempts to escape
56
Reciprocal inhibition
- Wolpe
- stimulus with desired response and stimulus with undesired response are presented repeatedly so that the incompatibility leads to a reduction in the frequency of the behaviour
57
Cueing
- aka prompting
- specific cues can be used to ellicit specific behaviours
- unlearning cues==> fading
58
Bandura's social learning theory
- people can learn from observing the behaviour of others and outcomes
- key thing is the cognition of the learning= awareness and expectations
59
Steps of cognitive processing during learning
1. attention to the observed behaviour
2. visual image and semantic encoding of the observed behaviour
3. memory permanence via retention and rehearsal
4. motor copying of the behaviour
5. motivation of act
60
Reciprocal causation
- Bandura
- behaviour can influence the environment and the individual and vice versa
- Bobo doll experiment
61
Cognitive learning
- Tolman
- learning can occur without reinforcement to the learnt response
- latent learning occurs
- rats can make mental maps of mazes and not get lost
62
Insight learning
- Kohler
- sudden idea occurs and solution is learnt
- no reinforcement required
63
Hierachy of learning
- Gagne
- 8 steps required for later complex learning
1. classic conditioning
2. operant conditioning
3. chaining
4. verbal association
5. discrimination learning
6. concept learning
7. rule learning
8. problem solving
