Why are humans described as inherently group-oriented?
Instinctively categorize self/others into groups (us vs. them)
Strong desire for group membership and positive group identity
Leads to depersonalization: attitudes/behaviors shift to fit group prototypes
In-group favoritism, out-group discrimination increases with group importance/salience
What is party identity and how does it differ from party membership?
Psychological attachment to a party, not just formal membership
Shapes self-understanding, attitudes, and voting behavior
Includes aversion/repulsion to other parties (negative partisanship)
Acquired early in life via socialization (alongside religion, class, ethnicity)
How does party identity act as a perceptual filter?
Functions as a “perceptual screen”
Favors information supporting partisan orientation
Blocks/dismisses info that undermines one’s party/positions
Stronger party bond = more exaggerated selection and distortion
What is socially motivated reasoning?
Reasoning shaped by pre-existing beliefs and group identity
Top-down processing: beliefs shape perception, not vice versa
Not objective/rational weighing of evidence
Filters not just info read, but also sensory perception (e.g., taste
Define cognitive dissonance.
Psychological discomfort from inconsistency between beliefs and behaviors
Motivates people to align beliefs and behaviors to avoid hypocrisy
: What are the main ways people resolve cognitive dissonance?
Change beliefs to match behaviors
Change behaviors to match beliefs
Find new beliefs/rationalizations to reduce inconsistency
Easiest: change beliefs rather than behaviors
Example of cognitive dissonance in everyday life?
Believing in climate change but living a high-carbon lifestyle
To reduce discomfort, may downplay personal impact or threat of climate change
During COVID-19: belief in masks’ effectiveness led to mask-wearing
How does cognitive dissonance feel?
Causes real, sometimes physical, discomfort
Example: strong discomfort when exposed to opposing political views or family arguments
Why is cognitive dissonance important for climate change engagement?
Most people agree climate change is a threat, but behaviors often contradict this
People more likely to rationalize/dismiss threat than change lifestyle
More scientific evidence alone rarely changes minds; can backfir
What is the backfire effect?
When confronted with contradictory evidence, people may double down on original beliefs
More evidence can sometimes entrench false or biased views
What is motivated reasoning (Taylor & Lodge’s three-step cycle)?
Confirmation bias: Seek out info that confirms existing beliefs
Prior attitude effect: Judge new info by how well it matches prior beliefs
Disconfirmation bias: Scrutinize/counter-argue info that contradicts beliefs
Cycle reinforces itself, strengthening original attitudes
What are the main effects of motivated reasoning?
Belief persistence: Hold onto beliefs even after disproof
Attitude polarization: Exposure to mixed/opposing info can make attitudes more extreme
Counter-arguing: Generate more counterarguments against challenging info
Example of belief persistence?
Belief in conspiracy theories or failed predictions (e.g., doomsday prophecies) persists even after being disproven
Why do identity and motivated reasoning matter for politics and society?
Shape how people process political info, vote, and respond to public issues
Make correcting misinformation or changing minds difficult
Fuel polarization and group conflict
Key terms:
Party Identity: Psychological attachment to a political party
Socially Motivated Reasoning: Processing info to protect/reinforce group identity
Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from belief-behavior inconsistency
Confirmation Bias: Favoring info that confirms beliefs
Backfire Effect: Contradictory evidence strengthens original beliefs
Belief Persistence: Retaining disproven beliefs
Attitude Polarization: Becoming more extreme after exposure to mixed info
