human contribution to global warming
global warming by approximately 1 degree is caused by human made carbon dioxide
lag in GHG emission
if GHG emissions were ceased, there would still be an increase in global warming bc there’s a lag between the GHG levels and the eventual temperature
albedo effect
warming due to more dark soil, rocks, etc. exposed when ice is melting (there is less sunlight reflected)
permafrost deposits of methane
warming due to the release of methane from clathrates when ice is melting (methane is trapped in ice lattices)
carbon dioxide in oceans
warming due to the release of trapped GHG when oceans are warmed up
inorganic chemistry’s affect on GHG
promote reactions that will use up carbon dioxide
solar fuels
- produced when carbon dioxide is reacted with water, catalyzed by energy (sunlight)
- burning solar fuels does not add new carbon dioxide to the environment
- must be stored
electron duality
behaves as both a particle and wave
de Broglie wavelength
wavelength calculated by Planck’s constant over momentum
photoelectron effect
- no electrons were emitted unless the threshold was reached
- intensity of light did not emit electrons below energy threshold, only when the light energy was above threshold level
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
- the more precise a position is known, the less precise a momentum is known and vice versa
- uncertainty in position x uncertainty in momentum > Planck’s constant / 4*pi
- cannot know the precise position and momentum of a particle at the same time
Schrodinger Equation
- described the energy of electrons as waves, denoted as wavefunction (psi)
- Hamiltonian operator (eigenfunction) x psi = energy of the electron x psi
- eigenfunction gives the energy of an electron in a H atom
- E is the energy
- psi can be treated mathematically to give shapes, phases, and nodes of an electron wave in an atom
theories that formed the Schrodinger Equation
- took 3 months to formulate
- light was a solid beam; and
- light was a wave
- led to the equation
integral of psi^2
- probability of finding the electron in a certain region of space defined by the integral limits
- integral of the overall space should equal 1
shape of an orbital
- defined by the probability over space (integral of psi^2)
orbital
- shape of region with highest probability of finding the elecron wave
- shape of stable wavefunction for an electron atom
- if an electron has a wavelength, the shape of the orbital represents a whole number of wavelengths, like a standing wave
wavefunction
- a whole number of wavelengths
- a standing wave without destructive interference
- electrons of a given wavelength will have one stable shape
Schrodinger Equation drawbacks
- only gives precise solutions for single electron systems
polyelectron system
- polyelectron systems have electrons that are attracted to the nucleus, while also exhibiting repulsion against other electrons
- both electrons are moving, therefore there is no precise mathematical equation
- can be approximated because they behave like hydrogen atoms; approximations are good
- precise solution for helium DNE but it does for He+
polar coordinates
- most convenient way to represent wavefunction
- r is the radius, the distance from the nucleus
- depends on the principal quantum number, n
- n = 0, 1, 2, 3…
- theta is the angle from perpendicular axis
- depends on the angular momentum quantum number, l
- l = n-1
- phi is the angle from one axis
- depends on the magnetic quantum number, ml
- ml = -l, …, 0, …, +l
angular momentum quantum number of s orbitals
- n = 1
- l = 0
angular momentum quantum number of p orbitals
- n = 2
- l = 1
angular momentum quantum number of d orbitals
- n = 3
- l = 2
