What are the key characteristics of qualitative research?
Key characteristics
- natural setting:
-> fieldwork, no lab or surveys!
- researcher as a key instrument
-> research collects data themselves through examining documents, … - no questionnaires, instruments, … - multiple methods: (of data collection)
- complex reasoning through inductive and deductive logic
-> inductive: bottom-up -> back and forth between themes and database OR collaboration w participants (so can shape themes/abstractions)
-> deductive: checking the themes against the data - participants’ multiple perspectives and meanings
-> focus on meaning that participants hold ipv researchers meaning + multiple perspectives of participants - context-dependent
-> researcher should understand contextual features and their influence on participants’ experience - emergent design
-> phases of the process may change or shift after the researchers enter the field + begin to collect data - reflexivity
-> researchers ‘position themselves -> researchers convey their background, how it informs their interpretation of info in a study, and how they have to gain from the study - holistic account
-> developing a complex picture of the problem or issue under study
Why would you use qualitative research? (L)
- to explore a problem or issue -> why is exploration needed? since the need to study a group or population, identify variables that cannot be easily measured, or hear silenced voices
- to get a complex, detailed understanding of the issue
-> too complex to quantify in statistics - to empower individuals to share their stories, hear their voices, and minimize the power relationships
-> eg. in feminist theory, queer theory, .. - to write a literary, flexible style that conveys stories, theater, poems, … without restrictions of formal academic structures of writing
(5. to understand the contexts or settings in which participants in a study address a problem or issue )
(6. to follow up quantitative research + help explain mechanisms/linkages in causal theories or models )
- to develop theories when partial or inadequate theories exist for certain populations and samples or existing theories do not adequately capture the complexity of the problem
-> especially in grounded theory - a lack of fit between quantitative measures and the problem exists
What does a qualitative study require from us?
- commit to extensive time in the field
- engage in the complex, time-consuming process of data analysis
-> large amounts of data + reducing them to a few themes/categories - write lengthy and descriptive passages
-> claims = substantiated + reflective of multiple perspectives - embrace dynamic and emergent procedures
- attend to anticipated and developing ethical issues
What are the features of a ‘good’ qualitative study?
- researcher frames the study within the assumptions and characteristics of the qualitative approach to research
-> includes fundamental characteristics eg. evolving design, presentation of multiple realities, focus on participant’s views - the researcher conducts and ethical study
- researcher uses one of the 5 approaches to qualitative inquiry
-> use of recognized approach => to enhance rigor and sophistication of research design - researcher starts with a single focus or concept being explored
-> as the study progresses: it can begin incorporating the comparison - researcher employs rigorous data collection procedures
-> use of multiple forms of data, … - researcher includes detailed methods describing a rigorous approach to data collection, data analysis and report writing
-> rigor when extensive data collection in the field, validation of the accuracy of the account - researcher analyzes data using multiple levels of abstraction
-> present studies in stages + layer analysis from particular to general + taking unusual angle - researcher writes persuasively so that the reader experiences ‘being there’
-> writing = clear, engaging and full of unexpected ideas - researcher situates himself or herself within the study to reflect his/her history, culture, personal experiences
What are the components of designing a qualitative study?
- preliminary considerations
- steps during the conduct of the study
- elements that flow through all phases of the process of research
Explain the preliminary considerations
- full review of the literature -> used to inform the questions OR reviewed late in the process of research OR used to help document the importance of the research problem
- use of theory varies eg. ethnography vs grounded theory
- consider the writing or reporting format for the qualitative project eg. scientific-oriented approaches, performances theatre, poems, …
- consider background and interests + what each of us brings to research -> researcher as a ‘multicultural subject’
What are the eight phases in the research process?
- acknowledge broad assumptions and identify the interpretive lens to be used
- determine the research problem/topic is needed to be addressed using a literature search
-> topic = real world, or deficiency/gap - draft open-ended research questions as exploratory
-> questions may change throughout the process of research reflecting the increased understanding of the problem - collect a variety of sources of data
-> 4 basic forms of qualitative info: interviews, observations, documents, artifacts - analyze data integrating inductive and deductive strategies
-> why? to engage in meaning-making
-> inductive: codes, themes, dimensions, …
-> deductive: to gather evidence to support the themes and the interpretations
-> working through multiple levels of abstraction -> starting w raw data and forming broader/broader categories - represent results based on participants’ perspectives and researcher interpretations
- discuss findings and compare with other findings
- utilize validation strategies
-> to make sure the account resonants with the participants
-> strategies: triangulation, having studies reviewed, employ other researchers to review my procedures
What elements can be found in all phases of the research?
E-?
- throughout collection and analysis: narrative = being shaped
- talking about background and experiences + how they shaped the interpretation of the findings
- sensitivity to ethical considerations
What type of ethical issues may arise prior to conducting a study and how do you adress the issue?
Types of ethical issues?
- seek college/uni approval
- examine professional association standards
- gain local access permissions
- select a site without a vested interest in the outcome of the study
- negotiate authorship for publication
- seek permission for use of unpublished instruments or procedures that other researchers might consider to be theirs
How to address?
- submit for institutional review board approval
- consult types of professional ethical standards
- identify and go through local approvals for the site and participants; find a gatekeeper to help
- select a site that will not raise power issues with researchers
- give credit for work done on the project; decide on author order
- obtain permission for use of any material that may be considered proprietary and give credit
What are 3 principles often in policies by institutional review boards?
- respect for persons
-> respecting privacy of participants + consent process = clearly communicated - concern for the welfare
-> ensuring adequate protection of participants -> evidence that we do not place the participants at risk - justice
-> treating people fairly and equitably + justifications for sampling strategies and site selection/criteria guiding site choice
What type of ethical issues may arise at the beginning of the conduct of a study and how do you adress the issue?
Type of ethical issue?
- disclose the purpose of the study
- refrain from pressure for participants into signing consent forms
- respect norms and charters of indigenous societies
- have sensitivity to the need of vulnerable populations (eg. children)
How to adress?
- contact participants, and inform them of the general purpose of the study
- assure participants that their participation is voluntary
- find out about cultural, religious, gender and other differences that need to be respected
- obtain appropriate consent
What type of ethical issues may arise during the collection of data and how do you address the issue?
Type of ethical issue?
* Respect the study site and minimize disruptions.
* Avoid deceiving participants.
* Respect potential power imbalances and exploitation of participants.
* Do not “use” participants by gathering data and leaving the site without giving back.
* Store data and materials (e.g., raw data and protocols) using appropriate security measures.”
How to address?
* Build trust and convey the extent of anticipated disruption in gaining access.
* Discuss the purpose and use of the study data.
* Avoid leading questions, withhold sharing personal impressions, and avoid disclosing sensitive information.
* Provide rewards for participating, and attend to opportunities for reciprocity.
* Store data and materials in secure locations for 5 years
What type of ethical issues may arise during the analysis of data and how do you address the issue?
Type of ethical issue?
* Avoid siding with participants and disclosing only positive results (= Pollyanna portrait)
* Respect the privacy of participants.”
How to address?
* Report multiple perspectives, and also report contrary findings.
* Assign fictitious names or aliases; develop composite profiles.”
What type of ethical issues may arise during the reporting of data and how do you address the issue?
Type of ethical issue?
* Avoid falsifying authorship, evidence, data, findings, and conclusions.
* Avoid disclosing information that would harm participants.
* Communicate in a clear, straightforward, appropriate language.
* Do not plagiarize”
How to address?
* Report honestly.
* Use composite stories so that individuals cannot be identified.
* Use language appropriate for the audiences of the research.
* See APA (2010) guidelines for permissions needed to reprint or adapt the work of others.”
What type of ethical issues may arise during the publication of the study and how do you address the issue?
Type of ethical issue?
* Share reports with others.
* Tailor the reporting to diverse audience(s).
* Do not duplicate or piecemeal publications.
* Complete proof of compliance with ethical issues and lack of conflict of interest.”
How to address?
* Provide copies of the report to participants and stakeholders.
* Share practical results, consider website distribution, and consider publishing in different languages.
* Refrain from using the same material for more than one publication.
* Disclose funders for research and who will profit from the research.”
What are some elements/considerations for a study design (proposal/plan)
Considerations?
- study a unique sample
=> gain new insights into well-established research areas
- assume an unconventional perspective
- observe an uncommon field site
- collect atypical forms of data
- present findings in an unusual way
- focus on a timely topic
-> what is currently covered by the news media?
What is the general writing structure for a proposal?
- introduce the problem to be studied
-> 3 sections:
1) statement of the problem
2) purpose of the study
3) research questions - describe the procedures guiding the study
-> eight sections: philosophical assumptions or worldview, qualitative research approach used, role of the researcher, data collection procedures, data analysis procedures, strategies for validating findings, proposed narrative structure of the study, and anticipated ethical issues - report the preliminary study findings
-> eg. pilot study if already completed/preliminary results - outline the anticipated study implications
-> what is the significance of the study? - list the references in the study
-> only those cited, not those consulted! - include essential documents as appendices
-> eg. entry letters, methods protocols, proposed timelines,
Discuss the interrelationship between the study problem, purpose, and questions within the research
-> show the need for methodological congruence
-> framework?
1) researcher identifies a problem + creates a problem statement (study purpose)
2) researcher creates a research purpose statement (purpose statement)
3) central question and sub-questions
What is methodological congruence?
= congruence between the problem statement, purpose statement, the research question, and subquestions
What are the elements of an introduction/research problem statement?
- advance the topic or general subject matter of the research study by creating reader interest in a few beginning sentences or a paragraph
-> use of timely topics, advancing key controversy,n using numbers, … - discuss the research problem or issue that leads to a need for the study
-> why does the topic matter? real-life issue? the gap in the literature?
-> not about discovering BUT about heightening of awareness, creating dialogue => better understanding => improvements in practice - summarize the scholarly literature
-> recent evidence addressing the problem?
-> refer to need to review the literature + position ones study within ongoing literature - point to deficiencies/gaps in evidence using the current literature or discussions
-> eg. inadequate data collection, need for research, inadequate research,
eg. narrative: indvs stories need to be told again to gain personal experiences about the research problem - argue the importance of the study for audiences
-> present how audiences or stakeholders will profit from study
Use the example of conceptions and misconceptions of teen smoking to illustrate the elements of a problem statement.
- Advance topic -> eg. exploring the conceptions and misconceptions of teen smoking in high school
- Research problem -> Tobacco is the leading cause of cancer
- evidence from research -> previous research focused on 4 topics + fewer studies examined smoking cessation
- Deficiencies in literature -> minimal research on social context + existing studies quantitative, transtheoretical + qualit. provides detailed views
- importance of audience -> administrators plan interventions, understand tobacco use in high schools
What is the purpose statement? (Elements)
= a statement that provides the major objective or intent or road map to the study -> what do you want to discover?
Elements?
- identification of specific qualitative approach (narrative, …)
- encoding the passage w words that indicate the action of the researcher and the focus of the approach to research
eg. understand experiences (narrative) VS describe (case studies, ethnography, phenomenology) VS ascribe meaning (phenomenology) VS develop/generate (grounded theory) VS discover (all) - identification of the central phenomenon -> 1 concept !
- foreshadow the participant and the site for the study, whether the participants = 1 indv, several individuals, …
+ general definition of the central phenomenon
What are some words typical for a certain qualitative approach regarding the purpose statement?
Narrative
- narrative study
- stories
- epiphanies
- lived experiences
- chronology
Phenomenology
- describe
- experiences
- meaning
- essence
Grounded theory
- generate
- develop
- propositions
- process
- substantive theory
Ethnography
- culture-sharing group
- cultural behavior and language
- cultural portrait
Case study
- bounded
- single or collective case
- event, process, program, individual
- cultural themes
What are the research questions in qualitative research?
- central question VS subquestions
- questions = open-ended, evolving (=while collecting => you may change RQ) and non-directional -> restate purpose of the study + what/how ipv why
- about the nature of phenomena, rather than prevalence
- Descriptive or explanatory :
- descriptive: what or how
- explanatory: why or how does A relate to B
