Current topics: Polarization > Lecture 4: Science rejection > Flashcards

Lecture 4: Science rejection Flashcards

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1
Q

Why is science under pressure (3)?

A
  1. Budget cuts
  2. Decreased public trust
  3. Online misinformation
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2
Q

Average scores for trust in various institutions in the Netherlands shows that science is trusted very well. Why are these grades misleading?

A

These grades don’t show the variation behind each grade
-> Past few years there has been polarization where more people scored lower on trust in science and others very high
–> Extremes are growing

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3
Q

Which topic of science is mostly trusted? Which one the least?

A

Most = healthcare research
Least = research into discrimination and inequality

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4
Q

Rank research topics from most to least trusted:

GMOs, discrimination/inequality, climate, healthcare, AI, vaccinations

A
  1. Healthcare
  2. Vaccinations
  3. Climate
  4. GMOs
  5. AI
  6. Discrimination/inequality
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5
Q

Why do people distrust science in the first place?

A

Scientific research has societal implications, which touches upon policy making, which is why people have an opinion about it

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6
Q

Where is the percentage of people that don’t get vaccines the lowest? Why is this the case and which heuristic is at play?

A

In areas where there aren’t many cases of these diseases

-> Because perception of risk is different
–> Availability heuristic

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7
Q

Vaccination numbers are dropping in wealthy countries. Which heuristic is at play here?

A

Availability heuristic –> perception of risk is low

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8
Q

What was the idea of keeping the audience content with science in the past?

A

Providing people with information, so they will appreciate science better

-> E.g. electrons are smaller than atoms

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9
Q

What is a more recent approach of presenting science to the people to maintain a positive attitude towards science?

A

Analytical thinking –> the better people are at analyzing ,the better the attitude towards science

E.g. bat+ball = 1.10EU, bat is 1 euro more expensive than ball –> ball costs 5 cents

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10
Q

What is the main predictor associated with the following topics in the US?
1. Climate skepticism
2. Vaccine skepticism
3. GM skepticism
4. Faith in science

A
  1. Climate skepticism
    -> Political conservatism
  2. Vaccine skepticism
    -> Religiosity
  3. GM skepticism
    -> Scientific literacy
  4. Faith in science
    -> Religiosity (orthodoxy)
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11
Q

In the US, skepticism on which topic is predicted by political conservatism? (1)

A

Climate change skepticism

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12
Q

In the US, skepticism on which topic is predicted by religiosity? (2)

A

Vaccine skepticism + faith in science

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13
Q

In the US, skepticism on which topic is predicted by scientific literacy? (1/1,5)

A

GM skepticism (+ vaccine skepticism)

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14
Q

What is the relation between country wealth and religion? Which country is an exception?

A

Wealthier countries tend to be less religious
-> Except US

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15
Q

What is the main predictor associated with the following topics in the NL?
1. Climate skepticism
2. Vaccine skepticism
3. GM skepticism
4. Evolution skepticism
5. Faith in science

A
  1. Climate skepticism
    -> Political conservatism (modestly)
  2. Vaccine skepticism
    -> Spirituality
  3. GM skepticism
    -> Spirituality (scientific literacy)
  4. Evolution skepticism
    -> Religiosity (orthodoxy)
  5. Faith in science
    -> Spirituality
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16
Q

What is the biggest difference in predictors for skepticism topics in NL vs US?

A

In NL religion plays a smaller role, spirituality is way bigger

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17
Q

In the NL, spirituality is a predictor for …. (3)

A

Vaccine + GM skepticism + faith in science

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18
Q

In NL, scientific literacy is a smaller predictor, but which 2 skepticism topics does it help predict?

A

Vaccine + GM skepticism

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19
Q

Why is it important to study science skepticism in multiple countries?

A

Each country is different, so we need to investigate a number of heterogenous countries
–> Test how robust the data is

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20
Q

Give an example for a survey item for measuring climate/vaccine/GM/evolution skepticism

A

Climate: humans cause climate change

Vaccines: vaccines cause autism

GM: GM of food is safe

Evolution: humans evolve from apes

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21
Q

How can you address faith of science in a questionnaire? Give an example

A

E.g. science is the most efficient means of attaining truth

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22
Q

What is scientific literacy? How can you test it in a questionnaire?

A

= ability to understand science and its methods and to use it to make decisions

e.g. the center of the earth is cold (true/false)

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23
Q

What are moral purity concerns? How can you measure it in a questionnaire?

A

= desire for a moral/ethical world

E.g. people should not do things that are disgusting, even if no one is harmed

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24
Q

What are 4 demographic factors that have to be asked in a questionnaire into science skepticism? Provide an example for the questionnaire for each

A
  1. Political conservatism (what is your political orientation)
  2. Religious identity (are you a religious person)
  3. Religious orthodoxy (you can only live a meaningful life if you believe)
  4. Spirituality (are you a spiritual person)
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25
How did they research science skepticism across the world?
Questionnaire/survey study in a heterogeneous set of countries
26
In the world, what are the main predictors for: 1. Climate skepticism 2. Vaccine skepticism 3. GM skepticism 4. Faith in science
1. Climate skepticism -> Political conservatism 2. Vaccine skepticism -> Spirituality (scientific literacy) 3. GM skepticism -> Scientific literacy 4. Evolution skepticism -> Religiosity (orthodoxy) 5. Faith in science -> Spirituality (Religiosity (orthodoxy))
27
For which topics do the predictors correspond with each other between US/NL/World?(2)
Climate change skepticism --> political conservatism GM skepticism --> scientific literacy (although spirituality is also a predictor in NL)
28
What is the best predictor of science skepticism?
It depends on the science topic what is the best predictor!
29
In the world, is religiosity a predictor for vaccine skepticism?
No!
30
In the world level, Scientific literacy is a predictor for vaccine skepticism and GM skepticism. The effect size is negative for both, what does this mean?
Less knowledge = more skeptic More knowledge = less skeptic
31
On the world level, Religiosity is a predictor for evolution skepticism. The effect size has a positive value, what does this mean?
More religious = more skeptic Less religious = less skeptic
32
Where in the world is there most faith in science?
Western countries
33
What can you say about the size of the predictors spirituality vs. religion for predicting faith of science on the world level? What does this mean?
Overall effect size of spirituality as predictor is 2x as big as religion -> So: spirituality is a robust predictor of faith in science
34
Levels of skepticism are ... (hetero/homogeneous) across countries and within countries
Heterogeneous
35
Predictors of skepticism are (hetero/homogeneous) across domains and (changing/constant) across countries What does this mean?
Heterogeneous across domains Constant across countries => Heterogeneity of predictors of skepticism is consistent across countries
36
... is a robust correlate of faith in science
Spirituality
37
What is spirituality? (2)
Individualized belief system: - Emphasis on subjective experience - Incorporates personal growth/transformation
38
What percentage of NL population self-identifies as spiritual?
25-33% --> quite a lot!
39
Spirituality is characterized by intuitive epistemology. What does this mean?
People determine what is real by focusing on what they feel -> Focus on intuition based on subjective experience
40
Why is spirituality correlated with negative attitudes towards science?
In short: - Spirituality = based on intuition - Sciene = is not intuitive Because spirituality is based on intuitive epistemology, meaning that people determine what is real by focusing on what they feel -> This goes firmly against the idea of science, because science is not intuitive
41
Phenomena that scientists study are often phenomena that people have different opinions about. Explain this with the example of milk pasteurization and vaccinations
Pasteurization of milk feels bad: people think it's more nutricious when not pasteurized Vaccinations simply feel counterintuitive, which evokes more skepticism
42
What is the relation between intuition and scientific findings? How did spirituality affect science faith in COVID times?
You have to override intuition to be able to accept scientific findings -> Spirituality pushes people to get closer to intuition in covid times, so it turns on science
43
What is conspirituality?
How conspiracy theories about health became a health threat (e.g. no vaccinations) E.g. LA schools' vaccination rate as low as south Sudan's
44
What is the connection between science, spirituality and naturalness?
Spirituality has preference for naturalness -> Nature = good Science: nature is neutral -> it violates (moral) intuitions
45
What are the 2 big problems with antecedents of lack of faith in science?
1. Ideological/worldview antecedents = hard to change 2. Reliance on intuition is increasingly valued
46
How has rationality evolved in history? Describe why 2000 was a turning point
After enlightenment: - Words associated with feelings decreased Year 2000: - Words associated with feelings increases Turningpoint 2000: because it's the post truth world, where there is a focus on what is moral and true
47
What is the post truth world and how does it relate to science?
Post truth world (since 2000): increasing focus on what is moral and true for you --> This is problematic for science, because to do science, you have to override intuition
48
What are surface attitudes and attitude roots? Give an example for each
Surface = attitudes that can be measured in surveys -> E.g. vaccines are toxic Roots = beneath surface attitudes + explain why these attitudes are there -> E.g. ideology, anxiety, interests
49
What can be a solution to reduce polarization of science attitudes? (2)
1. Look at attitude roots (where surface attitudes come from) 2. Jiu jitsu model: don't fight the opponent, just roll with them
50
Explain what is meant by the jiu jitsu model as a solution of reducing polarization on science attitudes
Don't fight the opponent, roll with them -> so try to understand, don't go against them --> understand where they come from and work with them to diffuse it
51
What are the 3 steps of the jiu jitsu model for solving polarization on science attitudes?
1. Identify attitude roots of anti-science attitude 2. Develop messages to counter anti-science attitude that are consistent with underlying root causes 3. Use messages in a non-judgmental way to change the anti-science attitude
52
Has there been any evidence for the effectiveness of the jiu jitsu model in reducing anti-science attitudes?
Yes: done in anti-vaxxers -> Effective if you try to understand them first and then help to change their attitudes
53
What is psychological distance?
People perceive objects/concepts/events as more or less psychologically close
54
... % of the world said they know little about science ... % feel like they are excluded from its benefits
50 % of the world said they know little about science 20 % feel like they are excluded from its benefits
55
Lower psychological distance to science means:
Science is perceived as useful with effect that bear relevance to the individual
56
What are the 4 types of psychological distance?
1. Hypothetical (uncertainty) 2. Spatial (geographical) 3. Temporal (time) 4. Social
57
What is hypothetical psychological distance (uncertainty)?
Something is too abstract --> it doesn't seem useful/applicable to the real world
58
What is spatial psychological distance (geographical)?
Something is too far away geographically --> science is not visible in the community
59
What is temporal psychological distance?
Something is too far away in time (past or future) --> science must be relevant to the present time
60
What is social psychological distance?
Someone not being approachable -> e.g. scientists must be accessible and similar enough to people
61
What can explain some of the science skepticism?
Perceived psychological distance to science
62
Can you say psychological distance to science causes science skepticism?
NO: only correlation was found between psychological distance to science and science skepticism There was a followup, which showed some causal evidence
63
More skepticism towards vaccines are associated with ... (larger/smaller) perceived social distance
Larger
64
How can we reduce psychological distance to science? (3)
1. Prevent stereotypes 2. Promote accessibility science 3. Citizen science (public actively participating in science)
65
What is important to keep monitoring? Why?
Science attitudes -> it becomes more polarized, although still a positive average -> So good to monitor!
Current topics: Polarization
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