Lecture 7: Attachment

Question 1

The influence of family in emotional development

Answer 1

• Family, especially parents, play a huge role in children’s emotional development
• Parent’s expression of emotions
  - Indirect influence on emotional development
• Parent’s reactions to children’s emotions
  
  • Direct influence on emotional developmen

Question 2

Parents’ Expression of Emotions

Answer 2

• Parents’ emotional expression serve as a model of when and how to express emotions
• Bobo doll study - ex of how kids copy their parents behaviour.

Question 3

Parents’ lack of emotional expression

Answer 3

*Children who grow up with parents that tend to not show emotions tend to:
* Not express emotions themselves
* Learn to see emotions as “bad”
* Have trouble identifying and understanding emotions in self and others
* Struggle with regulating intense emotions (when they have them some of the time)

Question 4

Parents’ Expressions of Positive Emotion

Answer 4

• Children that grow up with parents that express a high level of positive emotions tend to:
  - Express more positive emotions themselves
  - Be well-adjusted
  - Be socially skilled (bc of ability to express + emotions)

Question 5

Parents’ Expressions of Negative Emotions

Answer 5

• Children that grow up with parents that express a high level of negative emotions tend to:
  - Have heightened awareness to emotional cues of conflict, if there is frequent conflict at home
  - Experience and express more negative emotions themselves
  - Have poorer emotion regulation skills
  - Be less socially competent

Question 6

Parents’ Reactions to Children’s Emotions

Answer 6

*Parents’ reactions to their children’s emotions directly influence children’s emotional development
- Mirroring
- Emotional coaching

Question 7

Mirroring

Answer 7

• Behaviours in which a parent reflects the emotions of their child back to them
• Conveyed through verbal and non-verbal cues (ie: mimicking facial expression)
• Contingent responding: timely and appropriate reactions (rather than a later response, it needs to be pretty immediate)
• Characterized by warmth

Question 8

Examples of Mirroring (depends on how old they are and what is their cognitive development)

Answer 8

• A baby looks upset. The parent also furrows their eyebrows and frown.
• A child is pouting. The parent says, “You have tears in your eyes. You look sad.”
• A child feels very anxious about an upcoming test. The parent says “You seem anxious about the test. I sometimes feel the same way when I have a big thing to do at work.

Question 9

Mirroring

Answer 9

*Important because:
* Validates and normalizes the child’s emotions (what you are feeling is normal)
* Helps the child identify and understand their emotions

Question 10

Still-Face Paradigm

Answer 10

• sits and plays with baby (1 year)
• engage with baby
• then asks mom not to engange with baby, now the baby is trying to get the mom to engage.
• uses everything they have to try and get the mom’s attention
• They become distressed and stressed.

Question 11

Still-Face paradigm

Answer 11

• Lab procedure in which a parent repetitively alternates between being responsive to an infant and not reacting to them
• Infants quickly become distressed in reaction to still-face and this distress increases with each still-face “episode”
• Shows that infants are attuned to parents’ emotions and distress when a parent behaves contrary to expectation

evidence that kids are very attuned to parents emotions and they become super distressed when the parent is doing something they dont expect

Question 12

Implications of Still-Face Paradigm

Answer 12

• Two real-world examples of “still-face”that may interfere with infant emotional development
  
  • Depressed parents
    - Tend to show less emotional expression when responding to their infants
• Parents’ frequent cell phone use
  - May distract parents away from responding to infants’ emotional cues

Question 13

Emotional Coaching

Answer 13

• The use of discussion and other forms of instruction to teach children how to cope with, regulate, and appropriately express emotions (display rules)
• What is seen as appropriate depends on culture
• E.g. in East Asian cultures, emotional restraint is more highly valued vs. in Latin American cultures, emotional expression is more highly valued

Question 14

Examples of Emotional Coaching

Answer 14

• “You seem anxious about the test. Let’s take a breath and then work through some practice questions so that you feel more prepared.”
• “I know you’re frustrated that your sister took your toy without asking, but it’ not okay for you to pull her hair. That hurt her. Use your words instead to tell her that you’re frustrated. –> mirroring and coaching

Question 15

Importance of Supportive Reaction (miroring + emotional coaching)

Answer 15

Supportive/sensitive reactions, characterized by mirroring + emotional coaching, is ideal way to react to children’s emotions:
* Validates child’s emotions
* Helps the child understand their emotions
* Fosters emotional regulation
* Associated with higher self-esteem
* Fosters empathy and social skills
* Associated with better performance in school

Question 16

Parents’ Reactions to Children’s Emotions

Answer 16

Question 17

Implications of lack of effective emotional reaction

Answer 17

• Children who grow up with parents that habitually provide little/no mirroring and/or little/no emotional coaching tend to be:
  - Less socially competent
  - Less emotionally competent

Question 18

Why do parents react the way they do

Answer 18

• Cultural differences
  - Emotional expression is more encouraged in North America vs. East Asian cultures
  - Reactions to specific emotions differ by culture (ie: asia use shame as a learning opportunity)
  - E.g. reactions to shame in independent vs. collectivistic cultures
• Generational differences in norms for emotional expression (expression emotions is becoming more pushed for with each generation)
• Family reactions to emotions when parents themselves were children
  - Intergenerational transmission of emotional reactions and regulation
• Mood and emotions in the moment
  - Harder to be supportive if parent is having a bad day
  - Current mood will impact their reaction

Question 19

Summary

Answer 19

• Emotional development is shaped indirectly through the modelling that parents provide for how they react to their own emotions
• Parents influence children’s emotional development more directly through their use of mirroring and emotional coaching
• Still-face paradigm demonstrates that infants become very distressed when parents do not provide them with mirroring
• Sensitive reactions, characterized by mirroring and emotional coaching, from parents tend to foster good emotion regulation skills, social skills, and overall psychological well-being in children
• Many different social factors influence which emotions a parent displays and how they react to their children’s emotion

Question 20

Attachment theory

Question 21

John Bowlby

Answer 21

• Psychoanalyst who studied intense emotional distress of children orphaned during WWII
• humans have a bunch of physical needs but there were no concept of emotional needs.
• first to recognize these two things:
  - Distress due to separation from parents and not having emotional needs met
  - Behaviours observed (e.g., crying, clinging, searching) are adaptive responses to separation from an attachment figure (signal that they need to be soothed/co-regulation)

Question 22

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

Answer 22

• Children and their primary caregiver are biologically predisposed to develop a deep emotional bond (attachment)
• This bond forms the foundation for a child’s sense of security and thus shapes their emotional and social developme

Question 23

Features of Attachment System

Answer 23

1. Secure base
   * Caregiver provides a child with a sense of security from which they can explore the environment
   * Cannot explore the environment if attachment system is activated (because too distressed)
2. Proximity maintenance and seeking
   * Children are biologically motivated to stay close to caregiver
3. Separation distress
   * Children become distressed when separated from caregiver or when there is a threat in the environment
   * Activates attachment system, motivating child to seek proximity to caregiver
   * E.g. Looking for caregiver, seeking physical proximity, crying, clinging
4. Safe haven
   * Caregiver helps manage arousal (and distress) through co-regulation
   * Once proximity and reassurance have been achieved, attachment system deactivates

Question 24

Attachment System

Answer 24

Question 25

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

Answer 25

* Children and their primary caregiver are biologically predisposed to develop a deep emotional bond (attachment). * This bond forms the foundation for a child’s sense of security and thus shapes their emotional and social development. * Quality of child’s attachments are highly dependent on their experiences with caregiver

Question 26

Mary Ainsworth

Answer 26

* Provided empirical evidence of attachment theory by developing the Strange Situation procedure - Paradigm designed to systematically assess children’s attachment to a specific caregiv

Question 27

The Strange Situation

Answer 27

Question 28

Attachment Styles

Answer 28

* **Secure:** 60%; Child uses the parent as secure base, is distressed at separation, seeks the parent at reunion and is easily soothed * **Avoidant:** 15%; Readily separates to explore, avoids or ignores the parent when they return after separation, and has no preference for the parent to the stranger (indifferent) * **Resistant:** 10%; Clingy, does not separate to explore; wary of the stranger even when the parent is present, extremely distressed upon separation, but difficult to soothe once the parent comes back or demonstrates anger at the parent (called anxious attachment in adults) * **Disorganized:** Often freezes and dissociates, lack of consistency in behaviour towards parent, demonstrates contradictory responses, e.g., seem to want to approach caregiver but then withdraws and shows fear, generally fearful of the parent (what distinguishes them is that they show fear towards the caregiver)

Question 29

The strange situation

Question 30

Legacy of the strange situation

Answer 30

* Attachment styles replicated in several studies * Attachment styles are universal across cultures with approximately the same frequencies * Remains standard measure of children’s attachment style * Attachment styles in Strange Situation strongly correlated with attachment behaviour at home (shows a lot of external validity)

Question 31

Development of attachment

Answer 31

* **Pre-attachment phase**: birth – 6 weeks * Infant display innate behaviours that elicit care from caregivers (e.g. crying, cooing) * Do not show a clear preference for a specific caregiver, accept care from multiple adults * **Attachment-in-the-making phase**: 6 weeks – 6 months - Start to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people, preferring to receive care from a familiar person, but infants still open to care from strangers (starting to show a preference but still easily soothed) - Don’t show separation distress when separated from a parent (6 months is absolute earliest they will show seperation distress) **Clear-cut attachment phase**: 6 months –18-24 months - Infants display clear attachment behaviours and a preference for a primary caregiver - Separation distress is evident and fear of strangers emerges **Formation of reciprocal relationships**: 24 months + * Interested in creating bonds with others that are not their primary attachment figure * Are better able to tolerate distress that comes with separat

Question 32

Implications

Answer 32

* A baby’s age influences their attachment behaviours * Attachment seems to follow somewhat of a “sensitive period” - E.g. Evidence from Romanian orphanage

Question 33

The Case of Romanian Orphanages

Answer 33

* During the Cold War, many Romanian orphanages were characterized by profound neglect (very underfunded) - Children in these orphanages were unable to form a primary attachment relationship * The extent of negative effects of these experiences depended on how long children had spent in the orphanage - If adopted after 6 months, were much more likely to show profound, lasting cognitive, emotional, and social problems - If adopted before 6 months, more likely to show typical development * Suggests that 0-6 months is the sensitive period for the development of attachment --> this is why we prioritize putting kids in foster care before orphenages = two people dedicated to taking care of the child.

Question 34

Parenting Influences on Attachment style

Question 35

Parents of Securely Attached Children

Answer 35

* Parents’ behaviour: - Consistently available and responds promptly to infant’s cues (dependable) - Generally supportive/sensitive reactions to child - Engages in frequent positive exchanges with the child * Child learns that: - Proximity seeking is a good strategy to soothe distress - Can rely on the caregiver for comfort

Question 36

Attachment system

Answer 36

Question 37

Parents of Avoidantly Attached Children

Answer 37

Parents’ behaviour: * Unavailable and insensitive to the child’s cues * Tends to ignore, dismiss, reject, or criticize Child learns that: * Proximity seeking is not a good strategy to soothe distress

Question 38

Parents of Avoidantly Attached Children

Answer 38

Parents’ behaviour: * Consistently insensitive to the child’s signals * Avoids close contact or rejects child’s bids for contact * May be angry or impatient Child learns that: * Proximity seeking is not a good strategy to soothe distress * “Deactivates” attachment system - Avoid proximity of caregiver when distressed - Cope with distress by hiding it or avoiding situations that elicit distress (heart rate in these kids is elevated compared to kids that are showing seperation distress, but they are not showing their distress --> so at age 12-18months old they've already learned to not show when they are distressed). * BUT biological signs of stress when separated from caregiver

Question 39

Parents of Resistantly Attached Children

Answer 39

Parents’ behaviour: * Response to child’s distress is inconsistent and unpredictable (sometimes they are sensitive and supportive and sometimes they aren't...super unpredictable) * Often anxious or overwhelmed with caregiving Child learns that: * Proximity is sometimes a good strategy to soothe distress * “Hyperactivates” attachment system * Hypervigilance to threat * Cope with distress by heightening it and amplifying it (they learn that its not working but if they amp it out maybe it will work). * Crying louder, throwing a tantrum, clinging

Question 40

Parents of Children with Disorganized Attachment

Answer 40

* Parents’ behaviour: - Confuses or frightens child - Correlated with harsh, abusive, or neglectful parenting - Often struggle with severe mental health issues (usually have trauma) * Child learns that: - Proximity seeking often results in feeling scared - Caregiver is extremely unpredictable and cannot be trusted - Isn’t learning a lot about how to regulate emotions

Question 41

Reactions to The Strange Situation

Answer 41

Question 42

Temperament Influences on Attachment Style

Question 43

2. Temperament and Genetics

Answer 43

* Temperament influences attachment behaviours - E.g. Proneness-to-distress is positively associated with degree of distress during separations - A child that is hogh on this dimension (prone to distress) are more likely to develop either a resistant attachment style or maybe secure. But very unlikely to develop avoidant attachment style because they are prone to distress. - A child that is low in distress dimension = less likely to develop resistant attachment. * Temperament also influences the degree of responsiveness from a caregiver - E.g., very fussy babies that are difficult to soothe may make a caregiver feel helpless and be less responsive to the baby’s needs * No evidence that specific genes are related to attachment styles * BUT evidence for differential susceptibility

Question 44

Differential Susceptibility Hypothesis

Answer 44

* Some children are temperamentally, highly sensitive to both negative AND positive environmental conditions * “sensitive” temperament+ negative parenting experiences = negative outcomes * “sensitive” temperament + positive parenting experiences = positive outcomes

Question 45

“Dandelions and Orchids”

Answer 45

Dandelion: some kids are like dandelion...they are resilient Orchids: small portion of people or kids that are more sensitive. Need perfect and adequate conditions

Question 46

E.g. Negativity and Childcare

Answer 46

* Children with more difficult/negative temperaments have: - More behavioural problems if raised with low quality childcare - BUT have the lowest levels of behavioural problems if raised with high quality childcare

Question 47

Answer 47

answer: olivia

Question 48

Differential Susceptibility and Attachment

Answer 48

* Study: Conducted in Ukrainian preschoolers Examined relationship between: * Attachment * Caregiving environment - Raised in orphanage or with family * Variations in serotonin transporter gene (which influences how much serotonin there is circulating serotonin there is in our system) - S allele (vs. L allele) associated with greater reactivity to stress (SS, LL or LS): short allele is associated with a greater biological reactivity to stress (SS or LS) - Biological marker of greater sensitivity to environment

Question 49

Genetic Differential Susceptibility (results)

Answer 49

Results: Children with at least one S allele (vs. 2 L alleles) showed: * More attachment disorganization if raised in institution * BUT less attachment disorganization if raised with family * Suggests that genes related to environmental sensitivity and parenting work together to affect vulnerability to insecure attachment

Question 50

Implications of Differential Susceptibility

Answer 50

* Caregiving experiences and temperament jointly shape a child’s attachment and behavioural outcomes * While all kids benefit most from sensitive parenting, it is particularly important for children that are more temperamentally sensitive to their environment (orchids) * parenting type matters regardless of dandelion or orchids

Question 51

Implications of attachment

Question 52

Benefits of secure attachment

Answer 52

* Children that are securely attached vs. insecurely attached: secure attachment is considered the best - Are more emotionally expressive (in appropriate ways) - Experience more positive emotion - Are less anxious and depressed - Are less likely to have behavioural problems, like aggression and delinquency - Have closer relationships with peers - Show more empathy and helping behaviour - Are more socially competent in general - Do better in school - Have more positive romantic experiences in adolescence and adulthood Overall, better psychologically, social skills and better academically

Question 53

One Secure Attachment is Enough

Answer 53

* Having at least one secure attachment seems to buffer against the negative effects of insecure attachment (can have different attachment styles with different parents) - Children with insecure attachment to both parents had more behaviour problems than children with insecure attachment to just one parent

Question 54

Internal Working Models

Answer 54

* Mental representations of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general * Constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers * Once constructed, - Act as a filter through which interactions with the caregiver and other attachment figures are interpreted - Guide expectations and behaviours in relationships throughout life A childs attachement style is going to shape these internal working models into adolescence and adulthood. and a kids attachement style is heavily influence by their parents experiences.

Question 55

Model of others

Answer 55

Assessed against two dimensions. Crossing these 2 dimensions form 4 attachment styles.

Question 56

Attachment from Infancy to Adulthood

Answer 56

* Do caregiving experiences in childhood actually predict adult attachment style? * Method: Longitudinal study of 707 participants from childhood to age 18 * Assessed quality of caregiving experiences at various points in childhood: * Maternal sensitivity * Maternal depression * Father absence * Assessed adult attachment style at age 18

Question 57

Attachment from Infancy to Adulthood

Answer 57

Results: Less supportive parenting and family instability predicted attachment insecurity in adulthood Avoidance at age 18 predicted by: * Lower maternal sensitivity * Not consistently living with father Anxiety at age 18 predicted by: * Higher maternal depression * Evidence that there’s an association between childhood caregiving experiences and attachment in adulthood

Question 58

Summary

Answer 58

* According to Bowlby, attachment is biologically based and rooted in evolution * Using the Strange Situation, children can be classified into 4 attachment styles: secure, avoidant, resistant, disorganized * Attachment follows a predictable developmental timeline and there seems to be a sensitive period for its development wherein a child needs to develop a primary attachment relationship by 6 months * Attachment styles are shaped by experiences with caregivers * Secure attachment is associated with sensitive, responsive parenting * But, research also shows that children are differentially susceptible to parenting * Attachment style has a profound impact on children’s social and emotional development Secure attachment is associated with many positive outcomes The quality of children’s attachments shape their internal working models which guide their expectations and behaviours in relationships throughout life

Question 59

Summary Emotional Development 2 + attachment

Answer 59

Temperament * Temperament can be conceptualized categorically and dimensionally * 5 dimensions: positivity, activity level, distress, fear, attention span * Temperament is largely stable because reflects the operation of genetics The influence of parents on emotional development * Parents directly inflence a child's emotional experience via mirroring + emotional coaching * Parents indirectly influence kids emotional experiences via their modelling of how they handle their own emotions * Sensitive parenting = high mirroring + emotion coaching Attachment: * Strange situation is used to assess attachment styles * 4 attachment styles: secure, disorganized, avoidant, resistant * Attachment style is shaped by caregiving experiences - Attentive and responsive --> secure (separation distress and are relatively easily soothed when the parent comes back) - Parent is unpredicatable in their responsiveness --> resistant (highly distressed when seperated and are difficult to soothe) - Abusive and frightening parenting --> disorganized (frightened of the caregiver and look disoriented) - Consistently insensitive parenting --> avoidant (ignore the parent/indifferent to the parent) * Temperament also shapes attachment * Differential susceptibility; some kids are more sensitive to their encironment, for better and for worse.