Lecture 7 EAs

Question 2

Front

Answer 2

Back

Question 3

Chromium – LO6a Structure & Synthesis

Answer 3

Trace mineral; biologically active as trivalent chromium (Cr III), found bound to transferrin and a low–molecular weight chromium-binding substance; not synthesized by the body.

Question 4

Chromium – LO6b Sources & Normal Function (non‑EA, non‑sport)

Answer 4

Food sources include brewer’s yeast, broccoli, whole grains, nuts, liver, prunes, egg yolks and some fruits/vegetables. In the body Cr III acts as a cofactor that potentiates insulin action, helping carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism.

Question 5

Chromium – LO6c ‘Safe’ Rate of Intake (non‑EA, non‑sport)

Answer 5

Adequate Intake (AI) is about 35 μg/day for adult men and 25 μg/day for adult women; no formal UL has been set, but typical intakes are in the tens of micrograms per day.

Question 6

Chromium – LO6d Drug Test Value in Sport

Answer 6

Chromium is not on the WADA Prohibited List, not tracked in the Athlete Biological Passport, and is permitted for athletes.

Question 7

Chromium – LO6e EA Intake & Risks in Sport Settings

Answer 7

Common supplement doses are 200–600 μg/day as chromium picolinate. High chronic intakes may interfere with iron and zinc metabolism and, in cell culture, very high doses have been linked to chromosomal damage; long‑term safety of large supplemental doses is uncertain.

Question 8

Chromium – LO6f Rationale & Purported Mechanism in Sport

Answer 8

Because chromium potentiates insulin, it is marketed to improve glucose uptake, enhance protein synthesis and favor loss of fat mass with gain in lean mass, particularly for resistance/power athletes. However the exact ergogenic mechanism is unclear.

Question 9

Chromium – LO6g Research Evidence

Answer 9

Controlled training studies generally show no significant benefits of chromium supplementation on muscle mass, strength or performance compared with placebo; evidence does not support a meaningful ergogenic effect.

Question 10

Coenzyme Q10 – LO6a Structure & Synthesis

Answer 10

CoQ10 (ubiquinone/ubiquinol) is a lipid‑soluble, vitamin‑like benzoquinone with a long isoprenoid side chain; synthesized endogenously from acetyl‑CoA via the mevalonate pathway.

Question 11

Coenzyme Q10 – LO6b Sources & Normal Function

Answer 11

Found mainly in meats, fish, nuts and some oils, and in supplements. In tissues, especially heart muscle, it is an electron carrier in the mitochondrial electron transport chain and also acts as an antioxidant.

Question 12

Coenzyme Q10 – LO6c ‘Safe’ Intake (non‑sport)

Answer 12

Intakes up to about 1200 mg/day in adults have been reported as well tolerated in clinical studies; no official RDA or UL is set.

Question 13

Coenzyme Q10 – LO6d Drug Test Value in Sport

Answer 13

CoQ10 is not on the WADA Prohibited List and is not monitored by the ABP; it is allowed for use by athletes.

Question 14

Coenzyme Q10 – LO6e EA Intake & Risks in Sport Settings

Answer 14

Typical EA doses are 60–200 mg/day for several weeks. Side‑effects are usually mild (GI upset, nausea); some studies report higher plasma creatine kinase or markers of oxidative stress during intense exercise, so high‑dose use may not be harmless.

Question 15

Coenzyme Q10 – LO6f Rationale & Purported Mechanism in Sport

Answer 15

Because CoQ10 participates in electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation, supplements are marketed to enhance mitochondrial ATP production, improve stamina and support cardiovascular function in endurance and high‑intensity aerobic exercise.

Question 16

Coenzyme Q10 – LO6g Research Evidence

Answer 16

Most studies show increased plasma or muscle CoQ10 but no clear improvements in VO2max, time‑to‑exhaustion, or cycling/running performance; effects on oxidative stress markers are inconsistent. Overall evidence for performance benefits is weak.

Question 17

Ribose – LO6a Structure & Synthesis

Answer 17

D‑ribose is a five‑carbon (pentose) sugar; endogenously synthesized via the pentose phosphate pathway and incorporated into ATP, RNA and other nucleotides.

Question 18

Ribose – LO6b Sources & Normal Function

Answer 18

Small amounts are present in some fruits and vegetables; most body ribose is produced endogenously. It provides the ribose backbone for ATP and nucleic acids, important for cellular energy and genetic material.

Question 19

Ribose – LO6c ‘Safe’ Intake (non‑sport)

Answer 19

No RDA is set. Supplemental intakes around 10–20 g/day are commonly used in studies; higher acute doses can cause GI discomfort.

Question 20

Ribose – LO6d Drug Test Value in Sport

Answer 20

Ribose is not on the WADA Prohibited List and is not monitored; it is a permitted nutritional supplement.

Question 21

Ribose – LO6e EA Intake & Risks in Sport Settings

Answer 21

EA protocols often use ~4 g ribose, four times per day (≈16 g/day) for several days. Main side‑effects are diarrhea, nausea and headaches at higher intakes; no major systemic toxicities reported in healthy people.

Question 22

Ribose – LO6f Rationale & Purported Mechanism in Sport

Answer 22

Because ATP resynthesis depends on ribose for adenine nucleotides, ribose is marketed to speed recovery of muscle ATP after intense bouts and to enhance short‑term explosive or repeated high‑intensity efforts (resistance/power and sprint exercise).

Question 23

Ribose – LO6g Research Evidence

Answer 23

Controlled trials generally show that ribose supplementation does not significantly improve ATP recovery or power output during repeated high‑intensity exercise compared with placebo; evidence does not support a strong ergogenic effect.

Question 24

Inosine – LO6a Structure & Synthesis

Answer 24

Inosine is a purine nucleoside formed from hypoxanthine and ribose; produced endogenously as an intermediate in purine metabolism.

Question 25

Inosine – LO6b Sources & Normal Function

Answer 25

Found in small amounts in organ meats and brewer’s yeast. In cells it is involved in nucleotide metabolism and can be converted into ATP precursors or incorporated into tRNA.

Question 26

Inosine – LO6c ‘Safe’ Intake (non‑sport)

Answer 26

No RDA established. Supplemental intakes of several grams per day have been used short‑term in studies; long‑term high doses are not considered safe due to uric acid production.

Question 27

Inosine – LO6d Drug Test Value in Sport

Answer 27

Inosine is not listed as a prohibited substance by WADA and is not monitored by the ABP.

Question 28

Inosine – LO6e EA Intake & Risks in Sport Settings

Answer 28

EA doses around 5–6 g/day have been used. Inosine metabolism increases serum uric acid and can promote uric‑acid crystal deposition, increasing risk of gout and kidney stones; this is the main safety concern.

Question 29

Inosine – LO6f Rationale & Purported Mechanism in Sport

Answer 29

Inosine is marketed to increase ATP availability and 2,3‑DPG in red blood cells to facilitate O2 unloading, and to act as a cardiac vasodilator, potentially supporting both anaerobic and aerobic performance.

Question 30

Inosine – LO6g Research Evidence

Answer 30

Studies in competitive cyclists and other athletes show no significant improvement in aerobic cycling performance or anaerobic Wingate test outcomes versus placebo; evidence does not support an ergogenic effect.

Question 31

Choline – LO6a Structure & Synthesis

Answer 31

Choline is a water‑soluble quaternary amine; synthesized in liver and kidney from serine and methionine and also obtained preformed in the diet.

Question 32

Choline – LO6b Sources & Normal Function

Answer 32

Rich food sources include egg yolks, liver, meat, soybeans, wheat germ and some vegetables. Choline is a component of phosphatidylcholine in cell membranes and lipoproteins, is required for VLDL export from liver, and is a precursor to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Question 33

Choline – LO6c ‘Safe’ Intake (non‑sport)

Answer 33

AI for adults is ~550 mg/day for men and 425 mg/day for women; the Tolerable Upper Intake Level is about 3.5 g/day due to risk of hypotension and fishy body odor at high doses.

Question 34

Choline – LO6d Drug Test Value in Sport

Answer 34

Choline is not prohibited by WADA and is not part of the Athlete Biological Passport; it is permitted.

Question 35

Choline – LO6e EA Intake & Risks in Sport Settings

Answer 35

EA doses of 3–7.5 g/day have been used. High intakes can cause hypotension, excessive sweating, diarrhea and a strong fishy body odor due to trimethylamine accumulation, especially in people with trimethylaminuria.

Question 36

Choline – LO6f Rationale & Purported Mechanism in Sport

Answer 36

Because choline is a precursor for acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction, supplements are marketed to maintain ACh synthesis during prolonged exercise and to support nerve–muscle transmission and “fat burning,” especially for resistance/power athletes and bodybuilders.

Question 37

Choline – LO6g Research Evidence

Answer 37

In soldiers performing prolonged loaded walking and in endurance exercise studies, choline supplementation greatly raised plasma choline but did not improve time to exhaustion, VO2, heart rate, RPE or performance vs placebo; evidence does not support an ergogenic effect.

Question 38

Hydroxycitrate (HCA) – LO6a Structure & Synthesis

Answer 38

Hydroxycitrate is a derivative of citric acid found naturally in the rind of Garcinia cambogia and some other tropical plants; it is extracted and standardized for use in supplements.

Question 39

Hydroxycitrate (HCA) – LO6b Sources & Normal Function

Answer 39

In food it is present mainly in Garcinia fruit used in some Asian cuisines. It inhibits ATP‑citrate lyase, an enzyme linking carbohydrate metabolism to fatty‑acid synthesis; otherwise it has no essential nutrient role.

Question 40

Hydroxycitrate (HCA) – LO6c ‘Safe’ Intake (non‑sport)

Answer 40

There is no established RDA. Commercial weight‑loss products typically provide about 1500 mg/day HCA (e.g., 500 mg three times daily), which has been used for weeks in trials without major acute toxicity in most participants.

Question 41

Hydroxycitrate (HCA) – LO6d Drug Test Value in Sport

Answer 41

HCA is not on the WADA Prohibited List and is not monitored in the ABP.

Question 42

Hydroxycitrate (HCA) – LO6e EA Intake & Risks in Sport Settings

Answer 42

Similar doses to weight‑loss studies (≈1.5–3 g/day) are used. Reported side‑effects include GI discomfort; some animal work suggests potential testicular toxicity, and rare case reports have raised liver safety questions for certain herbal mixtures.

Question 43

Hydroxycitrate (HCA) – LO6f Rationale & Purported Mechanism in Sport

Answer 43

By inhibiting ATP‑citrate lyase, HCA is proposed to reduce de novo lipogenesis, increase fat oxidation and glycogen storage, and thereby promote weight loss and endurance by sparing glycogen during prolonged exercise.

Question 44

Hydroxycitrate (HCA) – LO6g Research Evidence

Answer 44

Human studies generally show no meaningful difference in weight loss, fat mass loss, respiratory quotient, or energy expenditure vs placebo in obese individuals or during submaximal exercise; current evidence does not support HCA as an effective ergogenic or weight‑loss aid.

Question 45

Glycerol – LO6a Structure & Synthesis

Answer 45

Glycerol is a three‑carbon sugar alcohol forming the backbone of triacylglycerols and phospholipids; it is produced endogenously during lipolysis and can be converted to glycolytic intermediates in the liver.

Question 46

Glycerol – LO6b Sources & Normal Function

Answer 46

Occurs in dietary fats and is also used as a food additive and pharmaceutical solvent. In metabolism, glycerol can be used for gluconeogenesis and as an energy substrate; it is also osmotically active and can influence fluid distribution between compartments.

Question 47

Glycerol – LO6c ‘Safe’ Intake (non‑sport)

Answer 47

Single doses up to about 1.2 g/kg body mass with 1–2 L of water have been used to induce hyperhydration in healthy adults; glycerol has low acute toxicity, though very high doses can cause nausea or headache.

Question 48

Glycerol – LO6d Drug Test Value in Sport

Answer 48

Glycerol used to be prohibited as a plasma‑expanding agent but was removed from the WADA Prohibited List in 2018; it is currently permitted and not tracked by the ABP.

Question 49

Glycerol – LO6e EA Intake & Risks in Sport Settings

Answer 49

EA protocols use ~1.0–1.2 g/kg body mass glycerol in 1–2 L of water ingested before exercise. Side‑effects can include nausea, bloating, light‑headedness and dizziness; however, toxicity is generally low.

Question 50

Glycerol – LO6f Rationale & Purported Mechanism in Sport

Answer 50

Pre‑exercise glycerol plus water increases total body water and plasma volume by promoting renal water retention and osmotic fluid shifts, producing ‘hyperhydration’ that may reduce cardiovascular and thermal strain during prolonged exercise in the heat (endurance aerobic events).

Question 51

Glycerol – LO6g Research Evidence

Answer 51

Studies show that glycerol plus water can increase fluid retention for several hours and, in some trials, prolong time‑to‑exhaustion during steady‑state cycling in the heat compared with water alone; evidence suggests a modest ergogenic effect for hot‑environment endurance.

Question 52

Medium‑Chain Triglycerides (MCT) – LO6a Structure & Synthesis

Answer 52

MCTs are triacylglycerols containing medium‑chain fatty acids (typically 8–12 carbons). They occur naturally in coconut and palm kernel oil and can be isolated and refined as supplements.

Question 53

Medium‑Chain Triglycerides (MCT) – LO6b Sources & Normal Function

Answer 53

Food sources include coconut oil and some full‑fat dairy; supplemental MCT oil is widely sold. MCTs are rapidly absorbed, transported via the portal vein and oxidized in the liver, providing a quick energy source and alternative fuel.

Question 54

Medium‑Chain Triglycerides (MCT) – LO6c ‘Safe’ Intake (non‑sport)

Answer 54

Within a normal fat intake (~30% of energy), single doses up to ~30 g of MCT at once are considered the upper limit before GI side‑effects become common.

Question 55

Medium‑Chain Triglycerides (MCT) – LO6d Drug Test Value in Sport

Answer 55

MCTs are a permitted dietary fat source and are not on the WADA Prohibited List or ABP.

Question 56

Medium‑Chain Triglycerides (MCT) – LO6e EA Intake & Risks in Sport Settings

Answer 56

EA protocols often combine 25–30 g MCT with carbohydrate before or during prolonged exercise. Side‑effects frequently include GI cramping and diarrhea, which can impair performance.

Question 57

Medium‑Chain Triglycerides (MCT) – LO6f Rationale & Purported Mechanism in Sport

Answer 57

MCTs are marketed as a rapidly oxidizable fat that bypasses carnitine‑dependent transport into mitochondria, potentially sparing muscle and liver glycogen and serving as an extra fuel during long‑duration aerobic exercise.

Question 58

Medium‑Chain Triglycerides (MCT) – LO6g Research Evidence

Answer 58

Research is mixed: some studies show small performance benefits when MCT is combined with carbohydrate, but many show no improvement or even impaired performance due to GI distress. Overall, evidence does not strongly support MCTs as a reliable ergogenic aid.

Question 59

Carbohydrate Loading – LO6a Structure & Synthesis

Answer 59

The relevant ‘structure’ is muscle and liver glycogen, a highly branched polymer of glucose synthesized endogenously from dietary carbohydrate via glycogenesis.

Question 60

Carbohydrate Loading – LO6b Sources & Normal Function

Answer 60

Carbohydrate comes from foods such as grains, pasta, bread, rice, fruits and sugars. Glycogen is the main storage form of carbohydrate and a critical fuel for moderate‑to‑high‑intensity exercise and for CNS function via blood glucose.

Question 61

Carbohydrate Loading – LO6c ‘Safe’ Intake (non‑sport)

Answer 61

For active adults, 45–65% of total energy from carbohydrate (about 5–7 g/kg/day) is generally recommended; high‑carbohydrate diets used for loading (8–12 g/kg/day for a day or more) are considered safe for healthy individuals.

Question 62

Carbohydrate Loading – LO6d Drug Test Value in Sport

Answer 62

High‑carbohydrate intake and elevated muscle glycogen are not prohibited by WADA and are not tracked in the ABP; CHO loading is a permitted nutrition strategy.

Question 63

Carbohydrate Loading – LO6e EA Intake & Risks in Sport Settings

Answer 63

Classic loading protocols combine prior glycogen‑depleting exercise with several days of very high carbohydrate intake (e.g., 8–12 g/kg/day). Side‑effects may include GI discomfort, a feeling of “heaviness,” and acute weight gain because each gram of glycogen stores ~2.7 g of water.

Question 64

Carbohydrate Loading – LO6f Rationale & Purported Mechanism in Sport

Answer 64

By supercompensating muscle glycogen, CHO loading increases the amount of stored carbohydrate available for oxidation during endurance events, delaying glycogen depletion and fatigue and extending time‑to‑exhaustion in prolonged whole‑body endurance aerobic exercise (>60 min).

Question 65

Carbohydrate Loading – LO6g Research Evidence

Answer 65

Well‑designed studies show that CHO loading can approximately double muscle glycogen content in the exercised muscles and significantly prolong time‑to‑exhaustion in events lasting >60–90 minutes; it is one of the most consistently supported nutritional ergogenic strategies.